ESSENTIALS OF COOKING VOLUME 2-1

ESSENTIALS OF COOKING VOLUME 2-1

MILK, BUTTER, AND CHEESE

EGGS

VEGETABLES

PREFACE

This volume, which is the second of the Woman's Institute Library of

Cookery, deals with such essentials of diet as the dairy products--milk,

butter, and cheese--the protein food, eggs, and the energy-producing

nutrients, vegetables.

In Milk, Butter, and Cheese, Parts 1 and 2, are explained the place

that milk occupies in the diet, its composition, grades, and the dishes

for which it is used; the purchase, care, and use of butter and butter

substitutes; and the characteristics, care, and varieties of both

domestic and imported cheeses, as well as a number of excellent recipes

for cheese dishes. A luncheon menu, in which a cheese dish is

substituted for meat, is of interest in this connection, for it shows

the housewife, early in her studies, not only how to combine dishes to

produce a balanced meal, but also how to make up a menu in which meat is

not needed.

In Eggs are discussed the nutritive value of eggs, the ways in which

to select, preserve, cook, and serve them, and how to utilize left-over

eggs. So many uses have eggs in the diet and so nourishing is this food

that too much attention cannot be paid to its preparation. In this

lesson, also, is given a breakfast menu to afford practice in preparing

several simple dishes usually served in this meal.

In Vegetables, Parts 1 and 2, every variety of vegetable is discussed

as to food value, preparation, place in the meal, and proper methods of

serving. With such a fund of knowledge, the housewife will be well

equipped to give pleasing variety to her meals.

In addition to the instruction in these matters, there are many recipes

showing certain steps as well as the finished result. With such

detailed information, it is our desire that as many of the recipes as

possible be tried, for it is only through constant practice that the

rules and principles of cookery will become thoroughly instilled in the

mind. Nothing is of more value to the housewife than such a knowledge

of food and its preparation, for, as every one knows, proper diet is

the chief requisite of good health.

To be of the greatest assistance to the woman in the home is the purpose

of these volumes--to relieve her household tasks of much of their

drudgery and to help her come to a realization of the opportunity for

good that is hers. In no better way can she create happiness and

contentment in her home than by preparing appetizing, nutritious meals

and serving them in the most attractive manner.

CONTENTS

MILK, BUTTER, AND CHEESE 4

Milk in the Diet 4

Composition of Milk 5

Products Obtained from Milk 7

Characteristics of Wholesome Milk 9

G r a des of Clean Milk 11

Preserved Milk 15

Milk in the Home 15

Recipes for Milk Dishes and Sauces 22

Economical Use of Butter 27

Flavor and Composition of Butter 27

Purchase and Care of Butter 28

Cooking With Butter 29

Serving Butter 30

Butter Substitutes 30

Characteristics and Care of Cheese 31

Imported Cheese 34

Domestic Cheese 36

Serving Cheese 37

Recipes for Cheese Dishes 38

Luncheon Menu 45

EGGS 47

Description of Eggs and Place in the Diet 48

Nutritive Value of Eggs 49

Selection of Eggs 51

Preservation of Eggs 54

Cooking of Eggs 57

Serving of Eggs 60

Egg Recipes 61

Use of Left-Over Eggs 71

Breakfast Menu 71

VEGETABLES

Variety in Vegetables 74

Structure, Composition, and Food Value 75

Purchase and Care of Vegetables 80

Classification of Vegetables 81

Methods of Preparing and Cooking Vegetables 82

Sauces for Vegetables 84

Asparagus and Its Preparation 86

Beans and Their Preparation 88

Beets and Their Preparation 95

Brussels Sprouts and Their Preparation 97

Cabbage and Its Preparation 98

Carrots and Their Preparation 102

Cauliflower and Its Preparation 103

Celery and Its Preparation 105

Corn and Its Preparation 107

Cucumbers and Their Preparation 109

Eggplant and Its Preparation 110

French Artichokes and Their Preparation 111

Greens and Their Preparation 113

Jerusalem Artichokes and Their Preparation 118

Kohlrabi and Its Preparation 119

Lentils and Their Preparation 120

Mushrooms and Their Preparation 121

Okra and Its Preparation 122

Onions and Their Preparation 125

Parsnips and Their Preparation 126

Peas and Their Preparation 127

Peppers and Their Preparation 129

White Potatoes and Their Preparation 131

Sweet Potatoes and Their Preparation 137

Radishes and Their Preparation 138

Salsify and Its Preparation 138

Squash and Its Preparation 139

Tomatoes and Their Preparation 141

Turnips and Their Preparation 143

Vegetable Combinations 144

Serving Vegetables 146

* * * * *

MILK, BUTTER, AND CHEESE (PART 1)

* * * * *

MILK

MILK IN THE DIET

1. As is well understood, milk is the liquid that is secreted by the

mammary glands of female mammals for the nourishment of their young. The

word milk as it is commonly used, however, refers to cow's milk,

because such milk is employed to a greater extent as human food than the

milk from any other animal. Cow's milk in its perfectly fresh raw state

is a yellowish-white, opaque fluid, called whole milk, and, as is well

known, possesses a distinctly sweet taste and characteristic odor. When

such milk is allowed to stand for some time without being disturbed, it

separates into two distinct layers, an upper and a lower one. The upper

layer, which is lighter than the lower one and occupies a smaller space,

consists largely of globules of fat and is called cream; the lower

layer, which is white or bluish-white in color and is composed of water,

solids, and protein, is, when separated from the cream, called

skim milk.

2. As an article of diet, milk is very important, because its sole

function in nature is to serve as food. It is required by the infant; it

is needed in the diet of all growing children; and it is desirable in

the preparation of dishes for both young and old.

Milk is used to such a great extent because it fills many of the

requirements of an ideal food. It is generally liked, requires little or

no time for preparation, agrees with the majority of persons when used

properly, and contains substances that supply energy and build and

repair tissue. Still, it does not contain these substances in such

proportions as to make it an ideal or exclusive article of diet for

adults, and it must often be modified to suit the needs of infants,

because it is ideal for only the young of the species for which it is

intended. Therefore, while milk is often called a perfect food, in

reality it is perfect for only the calf. When it is desired for the

feeding of a very young child, it must be changed to meet the

requirements before it can be used with good results.

3. So important is milk as an article of food that, outside of the

purely rural districts, producing the milk supply is a business of

considerable importance. This is due to the fact that the purity of milk

must be constantly safeguarded in order that clean, safe milk may be

provided for the countless numbers that depend on it. In fact, milk

undoubtedly bears a closer relation to public health than any other

food. To produce an adequate amount of clean, safe, pure milk is one of

the food problems of the city and country alike. In the city much of the

difficulty is overcome by the ordinances that provide standards of

composition and cleanliness, as well as inspection to insure them; but

such ordinances are rarely provided for in villages and country

districts.

When there is no law to prevent it, unclean milk is sometimes used in

the manufacture of butter and cheese, but when this happens, great

injustice, if not positive harm, is done to the consumers of these

articles. Then, too, unless milk is carefully inspected, tubercular milk

is liable to be used in the making of butter, and such a condition will

cause the spreading of tuberculosis as readily as the use of the

contaminated milk itself.

4. With its various products, milk helps to form a very large part of

the dietary in most homes, but while nothing can take the place of this

food and while it is high in food value, there seems to be a general

tendency to think of it as an addition to the bill of fare, rather than

as a possible substitute for more expensive food. For instance, milk is

very often served as a beverage in a meal in which the quantity of meat

or other protein foods is not reduced. From an economical standpoint, as

well as from the point of view of the needs of the body, this is really

extravagant, for milk is itself largely a protein food. The serving of a

glass of milk or of a dish that contains generous quantities of milk

offers the housewife an opportunity to cut down considerably the

allowance of meat and eggs. Because of this fact and because milk and

its products may be used to add nutritive value to a food, to give

variety, and to improve flavor, they deserve considerable study on the

part of the housewife.

5. Since milk may be used in such a variety of ways, it may be easily

included in the dietary for the family. Being liquid in form, it may

always be served without any preparation as a beverage or with other

beverages, cereals, and fruits. It also has numerous other uses, being

employed in the making of sauces for vegetables and meats, in the place

of stock for soups, and as the liquid for bread, cakes, puddings,

custards, and many frozen desserts. Because of its extensive use, every

housewife not only should know how to buy milk and care for it, but

should be familiar with its composition, so that she may determine

whether or not it suits the needs of her family. In addition, she should

know the effect of heat on milk and the various methods of preparation

if she would be able to judge what food combinations can be used

with milk.

COMPOSITION OF MILK

6. As milk is usually taken into the body in liquid form, the common

tendency is to regard it as a beverage, rather than as an important

source of nourishing food material. However, a knowledge of its

composition, as well as the fact that milk becomes a solid food in the

stomach and must then be dissolved in the process of digestion, will

serve to show that milk contains solids. That it possesses all the

elements required to sustain life and promote health is proved by the

fact that a child may live for months on milk alone and during this time

increase in weight.

7. The solids contained in milk are proteins, fat, carbohydrate in the

form of sugar, and mineral salts, besides which, of course, water occurs

in large quantities. The sugar and fat of milk serve as fuel; the

mineral salts are chiefly valuable for the growth of bones and teeth and

for their effect on the liquids of the body; and the proteins, like the

fat and sugar, serve as fuel, but they also make and repair the muscular

tissues of the body.

In considering the food substances of milk, it will be well to note also

that they vary according to the breed, feeding, and individual

characteristics of the cow. Jerseys and Guernseys give milk rich in fat

and total solids, and while Holstein cows give a greater quantity of

milk, such milk has a smaller proportion of fat and total solids. As a

rule, though, the composition of milk may be considered as approximately

3.3 per cent. protein, 4 per cent. fat, 5 per cent. carbohydrate, and

.7 per cent. mineral matter, making a total of 13 per cent. This

indicates the quantity of actual food material in milk, the remainder,

or 87 per cent., being water.

8. PROTEIN IN MILK.--Because of the double usefulness of protein--to

serve as fuel and to make and repair muscular tissue--this element is

regarded as an important ingredient of milk. The protein in milk is

called casein. The opaque whiteness of milk is largely due to the

presence of this substance. As long as milk remains sweet, the lime

salts it contains hold this casein in solution; but when it sours, the

salts are made soluble and the casein thickens, or coagulates. In

addition to casein, milk contains a small amount of protein in the form

of albumin. This substance, upon being heated, coagulates and causes

the formation of the skin that is always found on the top of milk that

has been heated. The skin thus formed contains everything that is found

in milk, because, as it forms, casein is dried with it and sugar and

fat, too, are caught and held there. It is the protein of milk and its

characteristic coagulation that are made use of in the making of cheese.

In cooking, the protein of milk is probably more affected than any of

the other substances, but the degree to which the digestion of milk is

thus affected is not definitely known, this being a much

disputed question.

9. FAT IN MILK.--The other substance in milk that serves as fuel, or to

produce energy, is fat. It occurs in the form of tiny particles, each

surrounded by a thin covering and suspended in the liquid. Such a

mixture, which is called an emulsion, is the most easily digested form

in which fat is found. The fat in milk varies more than the other food

substances, it being sometimes as low as 2 per cent, and again as high

as 6 per cent. However, the average of these two, or 4 per cent., is the

usual amount found in most milk.

As has been mentioned, the fat globules of milk rise to the top because

fat is lighter than water, so that when milk has been undisturbed for

some time the top, which is known as cream, will be found to contain

most of the fat. Because of the fat it contains, the cream is yellower

in color than the milk underneath. If the cream is beaten, or churned,

these fat particles will adhere in a mass, advantage of this fact being

taken in the making of butter.

10. CARBOHYDRATE IN MILK.--The carbohydrate contained in milk is in the

form of sugar called lactose. It is unlike other sugars in that it is

not very sweet and does not disagree with most persons nor upset their

digestion. For this reason, it is often given to children, invalids, and

persons who have digestive disturbances. However, it is like other

carbohydrates in that in solution it ferments. The result of the

fermentation in this case is the production of lactic acid, which

makes the milk sour. With the fat, lactose makes up the bulk of the

energy-producing material of milk, and while this is important it is

only secondary when compared to the tissue-building power of the protein

and minerals. Besides being an important part of milk itself, lactose is

a valuable by-product in the manufacture of cheese. After being taken

from whey, which is the clear, straw-colored liquid that remains when

the curd, or coagulated portion, is completely removed from the milk,

the lactose is refined and sold in the form of a powder that is used for

various kinds of infant and invalid feeding.

11. MINERAL MATTER IN MILK.--Considerable quantities of mineral salts,

which are chiefly lime, potash, and phosphates, are found in milk.

As has already been pointed out, these are important in the building of

bone and hard tissue in the body, but in addition they help to keep the

fluids of the body in the right condition. Because of the work they do,

these mineral salts are necessary in the building of the bodies of

growing children, and are useful for repair and the regulation of the

body processes in adults. In cheese, butter, and cream, which are the

products of milk, less of the mineral salts are found in proportion to

the quantity than in whole milk, skim milk, and whey.

12. WATER IN MILK.--The percentage of water in milk is much greater than

that of all the other food substances combined, there being more than

six times as much. While this quantity seems very large, it is an

advantage, for milk provides nourishment to persons when they can take

neither solid nor more condensed food. On the other hand, the water is a

disadvantage, for it is responsible for the rapid spoiling of milk. This

fact is clearly shown in the case of condensed milk, where the water is

partly or completely evaporated, for milk of this kind keeps much longer

without spoiling than either whole or skim milk.

PRODUCTS OBTAINED FROM MILK

13. Although milk is used extensively in its natural liquid form,

considerable use is also made of the numerous products of milk, chief

among which are cream, skim milk, buttermilk, sour milk, whey, butter,

and cheese. In fact, all of these occupy such an important place in the

dietary of the majority of homes that it is well for every housewife to

understand their value. Butter and cheese are discussed in detail later,

so that at this time no attention need be given to them. The other

products, however, are taken up now, with the intention of enabling the

housewife to familiarize herself with their production, nature, and use.

14. CREAM.--As has been pointed out, the particles of fat that rise to

the top of milk when it is allowed to remain undisturbed for some time

form the product known as cream. Cream may be removed from the milk by

skimming it off, or it may be separated from the milk by means of

machinery especially designed for the purpose. The greater the

proportion of fat in milk, the thicker, or "heavier," will be the cream.

Various grades of separated cream are placed on the market, the usual

ones being those which contain 8, 12, 16, 20, and 40 per cent, of fat.

Thin cream, which includes the grades that have only a small percentage

of fat, contains a larger quantity of milk than the others and is not so

desirable for many purposes. Still, it is used to some extent, because

it is cheaper and there are definite uses to which it can be put.

Medium-heavy cream is the kind to select when it is desired for

whipping. This is a process that consists in beating the cream rapidly

until a mass of tiny bubbles form and become stiff, very much as the

white of egg does.

15. SKIM MILK.--After a part or all of the cream has been removed from

whole milk, that which remains is called skim milk. While practically

all of the fat is taken out when milk is skimmed, very little protein or

sugar is removed. Therefore, skim milk is still a valuable food, it

being used to a large extent for cheese making, for the manufacture of

certain commercial foods, and for the feeding of animals. The housewife

does not, as a rule, buy skim milk; indeed, in some localities the laws

prevent its sale because it is considered an adulterated food. However,

it is really a wholesome, valuable food that is cheaper than whole milk,

and its use in the home should therefore be encouraged from an

economical standpoint. Here it may be used in the preparation of many

dishes, such as sauces, cakes, biscuits, muffins, griddle cakes, bread,

etc., in which butter or other fats are used, and in custards, puddings,

ices, and numerous other desserts.

16. BUTTERMILK.--The milk that remains in butter making after the butter

fat has been removed from cream by churning is known by the name

buttermilk. Such milk is similar to skim milk in composition, and unless

butter is made of sweet cream, buttermilk is sour. Buttermilk is used

considerably as a beverage, but besides this use there are numerous ways

in which it may be employed in the preparation of foods, as is pointed

out in various recipes. An advantage of buttermilk is that its cost is

less than that of whole milk, so that the housewife will do well to make

use of it in the preparation of those foods in which it produces

satisfactory results.

17. ARTIFICIAL BUTTERMILK.--Several kinds of sour milk that are called

buttermilk are to be had, particularly at soda fountains and

restaurants. While they are similar to buttermilk they are not the same,

because they are produced artificially from whole or skimmed sweet milk.

The usual method employed in the making of these artificial buttermilks,

as they may well be called, consists in adding to sweet milk tablets

containing lactic acid or a certain culture of bacteria that induce

fermentation, very much as yeast does, and then keeping it at about body

temperature for a number of hours in order to allow the milk to thicken

and sour. Such milks exert a beneficial action in the digestive tract,

and their food value, provided they are made from whole milk, is just as

high as that of the original sweet milk. Artificial buttermilks

therefore prove a valuable source of food supply for persons who find

them palatable and who do not care for sweet milk. Their food value may

be increased by adding cream to them.

18. SOUR MILK.--Ordinary milk contains large numbers of bacteria that

produce fermentation. When it is allowed to stand for some time, these

bacteria act upon the sugar, or lactose, contained in the milk and

change it into lactic acid. This acid gives to the milk a sour taste and

at the same time causes the casein of the milk to become a mass known as

curd, or clabber. This mass continues to grow sour and tough until

all the milk sugar is converted into lactic acid, so that the longer the

milk stands, the more acid it becomes. Sour milk, however, is useful

in the preparation of various dishes, such as hot breads and

griddle cakes.

19. WHEY.--When the curd is completely removed from milk, as in making

cheese, a clear, light, yellowish liquid known as whey remains. Whey is

composed of water, minerals, and milk sugar or lactic acid, and is the

least valuable part of the milk. The ingenious housewife will never be

at a loss to make use of this product, for, while its food value is

slight, the minerals it contains are important ones. Whey is sometimes

used to furnish the liquid for bread making and, in addition, it may be

used as a beverage for persons who cannot digest food as heavy as

milk itself.

20. COMPARISON OF FOOD VALUES OF MILK PRODUCTS.--So that the housewife

may become familiar with the food values of milk products, there is here

given, in Fig. 1, a graphic table for the comparison of such products.

Each glass is represented as containing approximately 1 pint or 1 pound

of the milk product, and the figures underneath each indicate the number

of calories found in the quantity represented. The triangle at the side

of each indicates the proportion of ash, protein, fat, carbohydrate, and

water, the percentage composition being given at the side. Housewives as

a rule fully appreciate the food value that is to be found in whole milk

and cream, but such products as skim milk, buttermilk, and whey are

likely to be ignored.

CHARACTERISTICS OF WHOLESOME MILK

21. So far as the housewife is concerned, the qualities that

characterize wholesome milk are without doubt of great interest. She may

know of what use milk is in the diet and the food substances of which it

is composed, but unless she understands just what constitutes milk of

good quality, as well as the nature of inferior milk, she cannot very

well provide her family with the kind it should have. Therefore, to

assist her in this matter, the characteristics of wholesome milk are

here discussed. Such milk, it will be well to note, must be of the right

composition, must not be adulterated, must be fresh--that is, not older

when delivered than is permitted by law--and must be as clean

as possible.

22. STANDARD OF MILK COMPOSITION.--The housewife usually judges the

quality of milk by the amount of cream that rises to the top when milk

in a bottle is allowed to remain undisturbed for some time. This is

really an excellent test, because milk that contains only a small amount

of cream is of poorer quality than that which contains a larger amount;

in other words, the more cream milk contains, the higher will be its

food value and the greater its energy-producing ability. Then, too, milk

that is rich in cream usually contains proportionately large amounts of

protein and sugar.

While the composition of milk has much to do with the quality of this

food, it varies, as should be noted, in different breeds and even in

individual cows, depending on both the food and the care given to them.

For this reason, milk that is mixed is preferable to the milk of a

single cow, as the mixing of the milk of a number of cows insures a

better average composition.

23. ADULTERATION OF MILK.--The composition of milk, and hence its

quality, is seriously affected by its adulteration. By this is meant the

extraction of any of the food substances from whole milk; the addition

of anything that tends to weaken or lower its quality or strength; the

use of coloring matter to make it appear of greater value than it

actually is; or the use of preservatives to prevent it from souring as

soon as it ordinarily would. It is, of course, illegal to adulterate

milk, yet it is sometimes done. The most convenient and possibly the

most common materials used to adulterate milk are water and skim milk.

The addition of water to milk decreases the quantity of all its food

substances, but the addition of skim milk reduces the quantity of fat

only. The color of the milk is often affected by the use of these

adulterants, but when this happens, yellow coloring is usually added to

restore the original appearance.

Sometimes the milk that a dairyman markets contains more fat than the

law requires; but even such milk cannot legally be skimmed nor diluted

with skim milk. The only thing that may be done to it is to mix it with

milk that is low in butter fat and thus obtain a milk that will average

the legal percentage. For instance, if milk from a dairy averages 5 per

cent, of butter fat, it may be diluted with milk that contains only 3

per cent, of butter fat, because the result of such mixing, which will

be milk averaging 4 per cent, of this food substance, will be the

legal standard.

24. To prevent milk from souring, dishonest milk dealers often put into

it such preservatives as soda, borax, and formaldehyde. There is no

definite way of telling whether or not one of these has been used,

except by a chemical analysis. However, if milk does not sour within a

reasonable time when no precautions have been taken to keep it sweet, it

should be looked on with suspicion, for it undoubtedly contains a

preservative.

25. FRESHNESS OF MILK.--To be most satisfactory for all purposes, milk

should be absolutely fresh. However, it is almost impossible to obtain

milk in this condition, because it is generally sold at a distance from

the source of supply. Milk that is sold in small towns and cities is

usually 12 and often 18 to 21 hours old when it is delivered; whereas,

in large cities, where the demand is so great that milk must be shipped

from great distances, it is often 24 to 36 or even 48 hours old when it

reaches the consumer. In order that milk may remain sweet long enough to

permit it to be delivered at places so far removed from the source of

supply, it must be handled and cared for in the cleanest possible way by

the dealers. Likewise, if the housewife desires to get the best results

from it, she must follow the same plan, cooling it immediately on

delivery and keeping it cool until it is consumed. The freshness of milk

can be determined only by the length of time it will remain sweet when

proper care is given to it.

26. CLEANLINESS OF MILK.--Milk may be of the right composition, free

from all adulteration, and as fresh as it is possible to obtain it, but

unless it is clean, it is an injurious food. Milk is rendered unclean or

impure by dirt. In reality, there are two kinds of dirt that may be

present in milk, and it is important to know just what these are and

what effect they have on milk.

27. The less harmful of the two kinds of dirt is the visible dirt that

gets into the milk from the cow, the stable, the milker, the milking

utensils, and similar sources when these are not scrupulously clean. If

milk containing such dirt is allowed to stand long enough in pans or

bottles for the heavier particles to settle, it will be found as

sediment in the bottom of the receptacle. To say the least, the presence

of such dirt is always disagreeable and frequently produces

foreign flavors.

Straining the milk through clean absorbent cotton will reveal the

presence of such dirt and another kind of dirt that does not show

through the opaque fluid. This second kind of dirt is generally found in

milk when the first kind is present in any quantity. It is more liable

to be harmful than the other, because it enters the milk from the water

used in cleaning the receptacles or from some contaminated source.

28. Whenever dirt is present in milk, bacteria are sure to be there; and

the greater the quantity of dirt the greater will be the number of

bacteria. Should the housewife desire to compare the cleanliness of

several lots of milk, she may filter a like quantity from each lot, say

a quart or a pint, through small disks of absorbent cotton. If, after

the milk has passed through the cotton disk, very little dirt remains on

it, as in Fig. 2 (a), the milk may be considered as comparatively

clean; if the cotton disk appears as in (b), the milk may be said to

be only slightly dirty; if it appears as in (c), the milk is dirty;

and if it appears as in (d), the milk is very dirty. Milk that leaves

a stain like that in (d) contains more bacteria than milk that leaves

a stain like that in (c), and so on through all the lots of milk.

Filtering milk in this manner, however, does not indicate whether the

bacteria are disease producing. Such information can be secured only by

microscopic examination, and only then by persons who have a knowledge

of such matters.

29. Since, as has been pointed out, bacteria cling to all dirt, the

dirt that milk contains is one of the causes of souring and putrefaction

of milk, and may be a cause of disease. Indeed, it is definitely known

that dirty milk sours much more quickly than does clean milk. Actual

tests in which clean milk was put in a cool place have proved that it

will keep for weeks, whereas dirty milk will sour in a day or two,

especially in warm weather. This information should point out clearly to

the housewife that it is not merely heat that changes milk or causes it

to sour. She should understand in addition, that bacteria grow and

multiply very rapidly when conditions for their growth are provided.

These conditions are moisture, warmth, and the right kind of food, and

as all of these are found in milk, this product is really ideal for

bacterial development. The only way in which to protect milk is to make

sure that no bacteria enter it, or, if they do, to make it impossible

for them to grow. This may be done by keeping the milk so cold that they

cannot thrive, or by destroying them in various ways, which are taken

up later.

30. In former times, there was not much danger of wide-spread disease

from the milk supply, for it was cared for almost entirely by those who

kept a few cows and distributed milk to a small number of customers. In

fact, it has been only within the past 50 years that large quantities of

milk are handled by separate dairies and shipped great distances from

the source of supply and that the distribution of milk has become a

great industry. When so much milk is handled in one place, it is more or

less unsafe unless the dairy is kept extremely clean and is conducted in

the most sanitary manner. Experience has shown that too much attention

cannot be given to the care of milk, for the lives of great numbers of

children have been sacrificed through the carelessness of dairymen and

persons selling and distributing milk, as well as through the negligence

of those who handle the milk after it has entered the home. To overcome

much of this carelessness, both the Federal Government and the various

states of this country have set standards for safe milk production, and

in order to make their laws effective have established inspection

service. Independently of these state and national laws, many of the

cities, particularly the large ones, have made their own standards,

which, as a rule, are very rigid. One of the usual requirements is to

compel each person who wishes to sell milk in the city to buy a license,

so that the city authorities may keep in touch with those handling milk

and so that conditions may be investigated at any time. In view of the

care required of dealers in handling milk, the housewife owes it to

herself and the members of her family to keep the milk in the home in

the best possible manner.

GRADES OF CLEAN MILK

31. Ever since milk has come to be a commercial product, authorities

have been devising ways in which it may be brought to the consumer in a

condition that will permit it to be used without causing ill results.

Their efforts have been rewarded to such an extent that nowadays

consumers have little to fear from the milk they purchase, provided they

get it from dealers who live up to the laws. Chief among the different

grades of clean milk is certified milk, and next in order comes

pasteurized milk, followed by sterilized milk.

32. CERTIFIED MILK.--The grade of clean milk sold under the name of

certified milk is simply natural, raw milk that is produced and marketed

under conditions that permit it to be guaranteed as pure, wholesome, and

of definite composition. Such milk is necessarily higher in price than

milk that is less wholesome and sanitary, because of the extra cost to

the dairyman in meeting the requirements that make it possible for him

to produce clean milk under sanitary conditions. These requirements

pertain to the health and cleanliness of those who handle the milk, to

the health, housing condition, and care of the herd and the dairy cows,

and to the handling and care of milk in the dairy and during

transportation and delivery. They are usually established and enforced

by an inspection commission appointed by the city, county, or state in

which the milk is produced.

33. If a little careful thought is given to the milk situation, it will

be admitted that such precautions are necessary if clean milk is to be

the result. Such milk cannot be produced if the surroundings are dirty,

because dust and flies, which are two sources of contamination, are

practically always present in such places. A stable with poor

ventilation, without screens to keep out flies, and with floors that

will not permit of cleaning, but cause filth and refuse to accumulate,

is sure to contaminate milk that is handled in it. In addition, cows

that are not well fed, comfortably housed, or carefully groomed cannot

be expected to give milk of as good quality as cows that are properly

cared for. Likewise, if the persons who do the milking are not clean,

the milk is subject to contamination from this source.

34. All such unfavorable conditions can be remedied, and must be in the

production of certified milk; but the good accomplished in this

direction will be lost if the milk is carelessly handled after milking.

Therefore, in producing certified milk, only the cleanest water

available is allowed to be used in the dairy. Impure water is a common

source of the contamination of milk in such places. On some farms, the

water supply comes from a well that is too near the barn or that is too

shallow to avoid being made impure by the germs that filter into it from

the barnyard or a cesspool. If vessels in which milk is placed are

washed in such water, it is necessary to sterilize them by boiling or

steaming before milk is put into them, in order to kill the germs that

come from the water. If such a precaution as this is not observed, the

germs will multiply rapidly in the milk and, provided they are

disease-producing, will make the milk extremely dangerous.

Besides observing the precautions mentioned, it is necessary that all

utensils used in a dairy, such as pails for milking, strainers,

containers, etc., be kept scrupulously clean. Likewise, they must be

sterilized by boiling each time they are used, for, while disease germs

may be absent, those which cause the milk to sour are always present and

must be destroyed. Finally, to prevent any germs that enter milk from

multiplying, even when it is properly cared for, the milk has to be

cooled to a temperature of 45 degrees Fahrenheit or lower immediately

after milking and then bottled in sterilized bottles, sealed, and packed

in ice, within 20 minutes after milking.

35. It is by giving attention to all such matters that certified milk is

possible. Such milk, as will be understood from what has been said, is

neither a cooked milk nor a dirty milk that is processed, but a natural,

raw milk that is clean at all stages of its production and marketing.

Because of this fact, it is the best and cleanest milk to be had and may

be used without hesitation, not only by grown persons in good health,

but for infants and invalids.

The sanitary condition of certified milk and the consequent length of

time it will remain sweet was demonstrated conclusively as far back as

1900 at the Paris Exposition. At this time, two model dairies in the

United States--one located at the University of Illinois and the other

at Briarcliff Manor, Westchester County, New York--delivered to their

booths at the Exposition milk that was bottled under the most sanitary

conditions at their dairies. During its transit across the ocean the

milk was kept at a temperature of 40 to 42 degrees Fahrenheit, and on

its arrival, 2 weeks after leaving the dairies, it was found to be in a

perfectly sweet condition. Similar experiments made at later dates, such

as shipping certified milk from the East to California, serve to bear

out the test made in 1900, and prove what can be done with milk so

produced as to be as free as possible from bacteria or the conditions

that permit their growth.

36. PASTEURIZED MILK.--While certified milk is undoubtedly the safest

kind of milk to use and is constantly growing in favor, much of the milk

received in the home is pasteurized. By pasteurized milk is meant milk

that has been heated to a temperature of 140 to 155 degrees Fahrenheit,

kept at this temperature for 15 to 20 minutes, and then cooled rapidly.

The result of such a treatment is that any disease-producing germs that

are present in the milk, as well as those which are likely to cause

intestinal disturbances, are destroyed, and that the milk is rendered

safe as food for a time. Pasteurizing does not materially change the

taste of milk, nor does it seriously affect the digestive properties of

this food. It is true, of course, that pasteurized milk is not so good

as clean raw milk. Still it is better to use such milk than to run the

risk of using milk that might be contaminated with the germs of

tuberculosis, typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, or any other of

the numerous diseases that have been known to be carried to whole

families and communities through the milk supply.

37. Although pasteurizing is done on a large scale in dairies, there is

no reason why the housewife cannot pasteurize the milk she buys,

provided it is raw milk and she feels that it is not safe to use. If

pasteurizing is to be done frequently and large quantities of milk are

to be treated, it would be advisable to purchase the convenient

apparatus that is to be had. However, if only a small quantity of milk

is to be pasteurized at a time, a simple improvised outfit will prove

satisfactory, because milk pasteurized in the home may be heated in the

bottles in which it is received. Such an outfit consists of a dairy

thermometer, a deep vessel, and a perforated pie tin or a wire rack of

suitable size.

38. To pasteurize milk in the home, Place the rack or invert the

perforated pie tin in the bottom of the vessel, and on it place the

bottles of milk from which the caps have not been removed. Make a hole

through the cap of one bottle, and insert the thermometer into the milk

through this hole. Then fill the vessel with cold water to within an

inch or so of the top of the bottles, taking care not to put in so much

water as to make the bottles float. Place the vessel over the fire,

heat it until the thermometer in the bottle registers a few degrees

over 150 degrees Fahrenheit, and keep the milk at this temperature for

15 to 20 minutes. At the end of this time, the milk will be

sufficiently pasteurized and may be removed from the fire. As soon as

it is taken from the water, cool it as rapidly as possible by running

cold water into the vessel slowly or by placing the bottles in several

changes of water, taking care not to place the hot bottles in very cold

water at first, as this may cause them to crack.

When the milk has been cooled by some rapid method, keep it cool until

it is used. This precaution is necessary because of the nature of

pasteurized milk. The temperature at which milk is pasteurized is

sufficient to kill all fully developed bacteria, but those which exist

in an undeveloped state, or in the form of spores, develop very rapidly

after pasteurization unless the milk is kept cold and clean. If these

bacteria were allowed to develop, the purpose of pasteurization would be

lost, and the milk would become as dangerous as it was originally.

39. STERILIZED MILK.--By sterilized milk is meant milk in which all

germs are destroyed by sterilization. Such milk is not sold by dealers,

but the process of sterilization is resorted to in the home when

pasteurization is not sufficient to render milk safe. This process,

which is the only positive means of destroying all germs, consists in

bringing the milk to the boiling point, or 212 degrees Fahrenheit,

allowing it to boil for three quarters of an hour, and then cooling it

rapidly. One who undertakes to treat milk in this way should remember

that it is difficult to boil milk, because the solids in the milk adhere

to the bottom and sides of the vessel and soon burn. However, this

difficulty can be overcome by sterilizing the milk in the bottles in

which it is bought.

40. To sterilize milk, place the sealed bottles on a wire rack or a

perforated pie tin in a deep vessel, as for the pasteurizing of milk,

and pour cold water into the vessel until it nearly covers the bottles.

Then raise the temperature of the water quickly to the boiling point,

and after it has begun to bubble, allow it to boil for three quarters of

an hour. At the end of this time, cool the milk rapidly and then keep it

cool until it is used.

41. Although milk thus treated becomes safe, sterilization changes its

flavor and digestibility. If milk of this kind must be used, some raw

food should be given with it. A diet composed entirely of cooked food is

not so ideal as one in which some raw food is included, because raw

foods contain substances that are essential to health. The change that

takes place in the composition of milk that has been sterilized can be

easily observed. Such milk on becoming sour does not coagulate as does

pasteurized or raw milk, owing to the fact that the lime salts in the

milk are so changed by the high temperature as to prevent the thickening

process from taking place. Then, too, sterilized milk is not likely to

become sour even after considerable time. Still, such milk is not safe

to use except when it is fresh, for instead of fermenting in the usual

way it putrefies and is liable to cause such a dangerous sickness as

ptomaine poisoning.

42. MODIFIED MILK.--For infants who cannot be fed their normal diet,

cow's milk must be used as a substitute, but in order to make it a more

nearly ideal food for them it must usually be modified, or changed, by

adding other materials. When it is so treated, it is known as modified

milk. The materials used to modify milk are sterile water, lime water,

barley water, cream, skim milk, milk sugar, or some other easily

digested carbohydrate, one of these or a combination of them always

being employed. The proportion of these ingredients to use varies with

the age of the child that is to be fed and must be constantly changed to

meet the child's requirements. In the production of modified milk, a

physician's prescription and directions should always be followed

closely. Only the best quality of milk should be used, and, in addition,

the greatest care should be taken to have all the bottles, utensils, and

materials used as clean and sterile as it is possible to make them. If

such conditions cannot be met, it is advisable to pasteurize the

modified-milk mixture after the materials have been put together.

PRESERVED MILK

43. Besides milk that is commonly sold by dairymen and milk dealers, it

is possible to buy in the market many grades of so-called PRESERVED

MILK. Such milk is produced by driving off all or part of the water

contained in milk, and it is sold as condensed, evaporated, and

powdered milk. Usually, it is put up in tin cans, and while it is not

used so extensively as regular milk, many firms are engaged in its

preparation.

44. CONDENSED AND EVAPORATED MILK.--As has just been mentioned,

condensed and evaporated milk is produced by the complete or partial

evaporation of the water contained in milk. Such milk can be shipped

long distances or kept for long periods of time, because it does not

contain sufficient moisture to permit the growth of bacteria. In

evaporating milk to produce these preserved milks, each gallon is

diminished in quantity to about two and one quarter pints, the original

87 per cent. of water being reduced to about 25 per cent. Therefore, in

order to use such milk, sufficient water must be added to restore it to

its original composition. Sometimes comparatively large amounts of cane

sugar are added to such milks, which, besides sweetening them, assist in

their preservation. If cane sugar is not used, the milks are usually

made sterile in order to prevent them from spoiling.

45. POWDERED MILK.--The form of preserved milk known as powdered milk

is the result of completely evaporating the water in milk. Such milk has

the appearance of a dry powdered substance. It does not spoil easily and

is so greatly reduced in quantity that it can be conveniently stored.

Because of these characteristics, this product, for which skim milk is

generally used, is extensively manufactured. It is used chiefly by

bakers and confectioners, and, as in the case of evaporated or condensed

milk, the water that has been evaporated in the powdering process must

be supplied when the milk is used.

STANDARD GRADING OF MILK AND CREAM

46. In order that a definite idea may be formed of the sanitary and

bacteriological standards that are set by milk commissions, there are

here given, in Table I, the regulations governing the grades and

designation of milk and cream that may be sold in the city of New York.

As will be observed from a study of this table, only definite grades of

milk and cream can be sold in that city; likewise, it must conform to

certain standards of purity and the producer must handle it in such a

way that it may be delivered to the consumer in as clean and fresh a

condition as possible.

Without doubt, a grading similar to this one will become general

throughout the United States eventually, for this is the only way by

which the housewife may know with certainty whether or not the milk she

purchases is of the right composition and is safe, fresh, and sanitary

in every respect. The different qualities of milk and cream as shown by

this grading are, of course, sold at different prices, those which

require the greatest care and expense in handling selling for the

highest price.

MILK IN THE HOME

PURCHASE OF MILK

47. After the housewife has become familiar with the points that she

should know concerning milk, she will be much better equipped to

purchase milk of the right kind for her home. However, there are still

some points for her to observe when she is purchasing milk if she would

supply her family with the best quality of this food.

48. In the first place, she should buy milk from a reliable dealer who

will not object to questioning, and, if possible, she should make an

investigation of the dairy that supplies the milk that she uses. If she

cannot investigate the dairy personally, she should at least endeavor to

obtain information from those who are prepared to give it. If she learns

that the conditions in the dairy that is supplying her with milk are not

what they should be, she should try to obtain milk from some other

source. Of course, she should remember that milk of the best and

cleanest quality is the highest in price, because of the increased cost

of production; but it is usually advisable to pay the higher price,

especially if children are to be fed, because cheap milk is liable to be

unsafe, at least for any purpose that will require it to be served

without cooking. Should the income not allow the best quality of milk to

be used for all purposes, a cheaper grade can be used for cooking, but

it is always economical to purchase the best quality when this food is

to be used as a beverage.

49. In the next place, the housewife should purchase milk from a dealer

who delivers cold milk, because, as has been mentioned, bacteria

multiply rapidly in warm milk. She should also try to obtain milk put up

in bottles, for such milk has advantages over milk dipped from a can in

that it does not have the same chance to become dirty and it affords a

greater opportunity to secure accurate measurement. The kind of caps

used on milk bottles should also be observed. Caps that have to be pried

out with a knife or a similar utensil are not nearly so satisfactory as

those shown in Fig. 5 (a), which have small tabs a that permit the

cap to be lifted out. In addition to the caps, which serve to keep dirt

out of the milk and permit it to be delivered without being spilled,

some dealers use covers like that shown in (b). Such covers are held

in place by a wire and serve further to protect the milk from

contamination.

If milk purchased in bottles is clean, there should be no sediment in

the bottom of the bottle after it has been allowed to stand for some

time. Also, if it is fresh, it will not sour quickly after it is

delivered, so that in case it is properly cared for and sours quickly,

it may be known to be stale milk. However, if it does not sour in the

normal length of time, it should be looked on with suspicion, for, as

has been pointed out, such milk may have added to it a preservative to

prevent souring. The housewife may expect milk that is delivered cold

and is guaranteed to be sanitary and fresh to remain sweet at least 24

hours, provided, of course, it is placed in the refrigerator immediately

upon delivery and kept there until used.

* * * * *

REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE GRADES AND DESIGNATION OF MILK AND CREAM WHICH

MAY BE SOLD IN THE CITY OF NEW YORK

The following classifications apply to milk and cream. The regulations

regarding bacterial content and time of delivery shall not apply to

sour cream.

Grades of Milk or Cream Sold in the City of New York:

GRADE A Milk or cream (Raw)

Definition: Grade A milk or cream (raw) is milk or cream produced and

handled in accordance with the minimum requirements, rules and

regulations as herein set forth.

Tuberculin Test And Physical Condition: 1. Only such cows shall be

admitted to the herd as have not reacted to a diagnostic injection of

tuberculin and are in good physical condition. 2. All cows shall be

tested with tuberculin and all reacting animals shall be excluded

from the herd.

Bacterial Contents: Grade A milk shall not contain more than 60,000

bacteria per cubic centimeter, and cream more than 300,000 bacteria per

cubic centimeter when delivered to the consumer or at any time prior to

such delivery.

Necessary Scores: Equip. 25, Meth. 50, Total 75

Time of Delivery: Shall be delivered within 36 hours after production.

Bottling: Unless otherwise specified in the permit, this milk or cream

shall be delivered to consumers only in bottles.

Labeling: Outer caps of bottles shall be white and shall contain the

words Grade A, Raw, in black letters in large type, and shall state the

name and address of the dealer.

Pasteurization: None.

Milk or cream (Pasteurized)

Definition: Grade A milk or cream (pasteurized) is milk or cream handled

and sold by dealers holding permits therefor from the Board of Health,

and produced and handled in accordance with the requirements, rules, and

regulations as herein set forth.

Tuberculin Test And Physical Condition: No tuberculin test required, but

cows must be healthy as disclosed by physical examination made annually.

Bacterial Contents: Grade A milk (pasteurized) shall not contain more

than 30,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter and cream (pasteurized) more

then 150,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter when delivered to the

consumer or at any time after pasteurization and prior to such delivery.

No milk supply averaging more than 200,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter

shall be pasteurized for sale under this designation.

Necessary Scores: Equip. 25, Meth. 43, Total 68.

Time of Delivery: Shall be delivered within 36 hours after

pasteurization.

Bottling: Unless otherwise specified in the permit, this milk or cream

shall be delivered to the consumer only in bottles.

Labeling: Outer cap of bottles shall be white and contain the word Grade

A in black letters in large type, date and hours between which

pasteurization was completed; place where pasteurization was performed;

name of the person, firm, or corporation offering for sale, selling, or

delivering same.

Pasteurization: Only such milk or cream shall be regarded as pasteurized

as has been subjected to a temperature averaging 145 degrees Fahrenheit

for not less than 30 minutes.

Grade B Milk or cream (Pasteurized)

Definition: Grade B milk or cream (pasteurized) is milk or cream

produced and handled in accordance with the minimal requirements, rules,

and regulations herein set forth and which has been pasteurized in

accordance with the requirements and rules and regulations of the

Department of Health for pasteurization.

Tuberculin Test And Physical Condition: No tuberculin test required, but

cows must be healthy as disclosed by physical examination made annually.

Bacterial Contents: No milk under this grade shall contain more than

100,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter and no claim shall contain more

than 500,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter when delivered to the

consumer or at anytime after pasteurization and prior to such delivery.

No milk supply averaging more than 1,500,000 bacteria per cubic

centimeter shall be pasteurized in this city for sale under this

designation. No milk supply averaging more than 300,000 bacteria per

cubic centimeter shall be pasteurized outside of the city for sale under

this designation.

Necessary Scores: Equip. 20, Meth. 35, Total 55

Time of Delivery: Milk shall be delivered within 36 hours and cream

within 48 hours after pasteurization.

Bottling: May be delivered in cans or bottles.

Labeling: Outer caps of bottles containing milk and tags affixed to cans

containing milk or cream shall be white and marked Grade B in bright

green letters in large type, date pasteurization was completed, place

where pasteurization was performed, name of the person, firm, or

corporation offering for sale, selling, or delivering same. Bottles

containing cream shall be labeled with caps marked Grade B in bright

green letters, in large type and shall give the place and date of

bottling and shall give the name of person, firm, or corporation

offering for sale, selling, or delivering same.

Pasteurization: Only such milk or cream shall be regarded as pasteurized

as has been subjected to a temperature averaging 145 degrees Fahrenheit

for not less than 30 minutes.

Grade C Milk or cream (Pasteurized) (For cooking and manufacturing

purposes only.)

Definition: Grade C milk or cream is milk or cream not conforming to the

requirements of any of the subdivisions of Grade A or Grade B and which

has been pasteurized according to the requirements and rules and

regulations of the Board of Health or boiled for at least two

(2) minutes.

Tuberculin Test And Physical Condition: No tuberculin test required, but

cows must be healthy as disclosed by physical examination made annually.

Bacterial Contents: No milk of this grade shall contain more than

300,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter and no cream of this grade show

contain more than 1,500,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter after

pasteurization.

Necessary Scores: Score 40

Time of Delivery: Shall be delivered within 48 hours after

pasteurization.

Bottling: May be delivered in the cans only.

Labeling: Tags affixed to cans shall be white and shall be marked in red

with the words, Grade C in large type and "for cooking" in plainly

visible type, and cans and shall have properly sealed metal collars,

painted red on necks.

Pasteurization: Only such milk or cream shall be regarded as pasteurized

as has been subjected to a temperature averaging 145 degrees Fahrenheit

for not less than 30 minutes.

NOTE.--Sour milk, buttermilk, sour cream, kumyss, matzoon, zoolac, and

similar products shall not be made from any milk of a less grade than

that designated for Grade B and shall be pasteurized before being put

through the process of souring. Sour cream shall not contained a less

percentage of fats than that designated for cream.

No other words than those designated herein shall appear on the label of

any container containing milk or cream or milk or cream products except

the word certified when authorized under the State law.

* * * * *

CARE OF MILK

50. NECESSITY FOR CARE IN THE HOME.--If milk of good quality is bought,

and, as has been suggested, this should be done whenever it is possible,

the next thing to do is to care for it in such a way that it may be fed

to the family in the same condition as it was when delivered. It is, of

course, of prime importance that the dairyman deliver clean fresh milk,

but this is not sufficient; the milk must remain in this condition until

it is used, and this can occur only when the housewife knows how to care

for it properly after it enters the home. It is possible to make safe

milk unsafe and unsafe milk positively dangerous unless the housewife

understands how to care for milk and puts into practice what she knows

concerning this matter. Indeed, some of the blame laid to the careless

handling of milk by dairymen really belongs to housewives, for very

often they do not take care of milk in the right way after delivery. As

too much attention cannot be given to this matter, explicit directions

are here outlined, with the idea of assisting the housewife in this

matter as much as possible.

51. KEEPING MILK CLEAN IN THE HOME.--Immediately upon delivery, the

bottle containing the milk should be placed in the coolest place

available, never being allowed to stand on the porch in the sun or where

such animals as cats or dogs may come in contact with it. When the milk

is to be used, the paper cap should be carefully wiped before it is

removed from the bottle, so that any dirt that may be on top will not

fall into the milk. If not all the milk is used and the bottle must be

returned to the cool place where it is kept, it should be covered by

means of an inverted drinking glass or, as shown in Fig. 6, by a glass

or porcelain cover. Such covers, or sanitary milk caps, as they are

called, are very convenient for this purpose and may be purchased at a

slight cost.

52. Another precaution that should be taken is never to mix stale milk

with fresh milk, because the entire quantity will become sour in the

same length of time as the stale milk would. Also, milk that has been

poured into a pitcher or any other open vessel and allowed to stand

exposed to the air for some time should never be put back into the

bottle with the remaining milk. Such milk is sure to be contaminated

with the germs that are always present in the dust constantly

circulating in the air. It is sometimes necessary to keep milk in a

vessel other than the bottle in which it is delivered. In such an event,

the vessel that is used should be washed thoroughly, boiled in clean

water, and cooled before the milk is poured into it.

53. Particular care should be taken of the empty milk bottles. They

should never be used for anything except milk. Before they are returned

to the dairyman to be used again, they should first be rinsed with cold

water, then washed thoroughly with hot, soapy water, and finally rinsed

with hot water. If there is illness in the home, the washed bottles

should be put into a pan of cool water, allowed to come to a boil, and

permitted to boil for a few minutes. Such attention will free the

bottles from any contamination they might have received. The dairyman,

of course, gives the bottles further attention before he uses them

again, but the housewife should do her part by making sure that they are

thoroughly cleansed before they are collected by him.

54. KEEPING MILK COOL IN THE HOME.--As has been pointed out, milk

should, upon being received, be kept in the coolest place available,

which, in the majority of homes at the present time, is the

refrigerator. In making use of the refrigerator for this purpose, the

housewife should put into practice what she learned in Essentials of

Cookery, Part 2, concerning the proper placing of food in the

refrigerator, remembering that milk should be placed where it will

remain the coolest and where it is least likely to absorb odors. She

should also bear in mind that the temperature inside of a refrigerator

varies with that of the surrounding air. It is because of this fact that

milk often sours when the temperature is high, as in summer, for

instance, even though it is kept in the refrigerator.

55. In case a refrigerator is not available, it will be necessary to

resort to other means of keeping milk cool. A cool cellar or basement is

an excellent substitute, but if milk is kept in either of these places,

it must be tightly covered. Then, too, the spring house with its stream

of running water is fully as good as a refrigerator And is used

extensively in farming districts. But even though a housewife has none

of these at her disposal, she need not be deprived of fresh milk, for

there are still other ways of keeping milk cool and consequently fresh.

A very simple way in which to keep milk cool is to weight down the

bottles in a vessel that is deeper than they are and then pour cold

water into the vessel until it reaches the top of the bottles, replacing

the water occasionally as it becomes warm. A still better way, however,

is to wrap the bottle in a clean towel or piece of cotton

cloth so that one corner of it is left loose at the top. Then place this

end in a pan of cold water that stands higher than the bottle. Such an

arrangement will keep the cloth wet constantly and by the evaporation of

the water from it will cause the milk to remain cool.

COOKING MILK

56. POINTS TO BE OBSERVED IN COOKING MILK.--Because of the nature of

milk and its constituents, the cooking of this liquid is a little more

difficult than would appear at first thought. In fact, heating milk to a

temperature greater than 155 degrees Fahrenheit causes several changes

to occur in it, one of which, the coagulation of the albumin, has

already been mentioned. As the albumin hardens into the layer that

forms on the top of boiled milk, a certain amount of fat, sugar, and

casein becomes entangled in it, and if the coagulated skin is rejected,

these food substances, in addition to the albumin, are lost. Another

change that results from boiling is in the fat globules that remain, for

these separate and exist no longer in the form of cream.

57. When milk that is not perfectly fresh is cooked with other materials

or soups, sauces, and puddings it sometimes curdles. To prevent

curdling, the milk should be heated as rapidly as possible before it is

used with the other ingredients. While the separate heating of the milk

involves a little more work, time may be gained by heating the milk

while the remaining ingredients are being prepared. The curdling of

comparatively fresh milk is often caused by the addition of salt,

especially if the salt is added when the milk is hot. However, if a

pinch of bicarbonate of soda is added to the milk before it is heated,

it will not be likely to curdle even though it is not absolutely fresh.

When tomato is to be used in soup that contains milk or cream, curdling

can be prevented if the milk or the cream to be used is thickened with

flour or corn starch or a little soda is added to the tomato before the

two are mixed. The mixing is accomplished by pouring the tomato into

the milk instead of the milk into the tomato. When acid fruit juices

are to be added to milk or cream and the mixture then frozen, curdling

can be prevented by thoroughly chilling the milk or cream in the freezer

can before combining it with the juices.

58. As has already been learned, great care must be taken in the heating

of milk, because the solids that it contains adhere quickly to the

bottom of the pan and cause the milk to scorch. For this reason, milk

should never be heated directly over the flame unless the intention is

to boil it, and even if it must be boiled every precaution should be

taken to prevent it from burning. It should be remembered, too, that a

very small scorched area will be sufficient to make a quantity of milk

taste burned. The utensil in which milk can be heated in the most

satisfactory way is the double boiler, for the milk does not come in

direct contact with the heat in this utensil. If a double boiler is not

available, good results can be obtained by setting one pan into another

that contains water.

59. Milk is often used in place of water for cooking cereals, beverages,

puddings, soups, etc. This is good practice and should be followed

whenever possible, for when milk is added it serves to increase the

nutritive value of the food. It should be observed, however, that more

time is required to cook grains or cereals in milk than to cook them in

water, because milk contains more solid matter than water and is not

absorbed so quickly. Another frequent use of milk is in breads and

biscuits, where, as is explained in Bread and Hot Breads, it

produces a browner and more tender crust than water.

60. VARIETY OF WAYS TO USE MILK IN COOKING.--Because of the numerous

purposes for which milk is required in the preparation of foods, the

smallest amount of it, whether sweet or sour, can be utilized in

cooking; therefore, no milk need ever be wasted. A few of the uses to

which this food is oftenest put are mentioned briefly in order that the

housewife may be familiar enough with them to call them to mind whenever

she desires to carry out a recipe that calls for milk or when she has

occasion to utilize milk that she has on hand.

Milk thickened slightly with flour and flavored with such material as

corn, asparagus, celery, tomatoes, beans, peas, or fish makes a

delicious soup. In bisques, or thickened soups, and in chowders, the

liquid used need not be milk, but these are made very appetizing if milk

is used for part or all of the liquid. Then, too, sauces or gravies made

with milk, thickened with flour, and made rich with butter or other fat

lend themselves to a variety of uses. Dice of vegetables, meat, fish, or

game added to a sauce of this kind and served in pastry cases or over

toast provide dishes that are delightful additions to any meal. Milk is

also used as the basis for custards, blanc manges, ices, sherbets, ice

creams, and tapioca, rice, and bread puddings in which eggs, starchy

materials, and flavorings are added and the mixture then baked, steamed,

boiled, or frozen, as the desired result may require. As is well known,

milk is practically indispensable in the making of cakes, cookies, quick

breads, and in fact nearly all dough mixtures. Even if it has soured, it

can be used with soda to take the place of cream of tartar in mixtures

that are to be made light, the lactic acid in the sour milk acting with

the soda as leavening. Left-over milk in comparatively large quantities

may also be used in the home for the making of cheese, although this

product of milk is usually produced commercially.

RECIPES FOR MILK DISHES AND SAUCES

FOODS CONTAINING MILK

61. From the discussion given up to this point, it will be noted that

milk is used in a large variety of ways and in the making of numerous

dishes. However, most of the dishes in which this liquid occurs involve

other important materials, so that the recipes for them are usually

listed under some other ingredient or division of cookery. For instance,

milk is used in the making of ice cream, but as the ice creams are

included among cold desserts, recipes for them would naturally come in

the Section pertaining to this subject. Milk is also an important

ingredient in puddings, but the recipes for such dishes are given in the

Section in which puddings and their sauces are discussed.

Because of this fact, there are only a few recipes that have milk as

their basis, and this accounts for the small number of recipes here

given. Chief among the recipes that involve principally milk are those

for junket and white sauce, and while the number of these is small and

the use of the dishes not so general as some kinds of food, just as much

attention should be given to them as if they occurred in greater numbers

and were used more commonly. Junket is very easily made and should

therefore cause the housewife no concern; likewise, little difficulty

will be experienced if the directions here given for white sauces are

followed explicitly.

RECIPES FOR JUNKET

62. Plain Junket.--In the stomachs of all animals that use milk as food

is found a digestive ferment known as rennin. This is taken from the

stomachs of calves, made up commercially, and sold in the form of

tablets called junket. When these tablets are used properly with milk,

they coagulate the milk and make an excellent dessert that resembles

custard and that is very easy to digest. Because of its nature and

qualities, this kind of dessert is used largely for invalids and

children. The following recipe gives the proportion and directions for

making this dessert in its simplest form.

PLAIN JUNKET

(Sufficient to Serve Eight)

1 junket tablet

1 Tb. cold water

1 qt. milk

4 Tb. sugar

1/4 tsp. salt

1/2 tsp. vanilla or other flavoring

Dissolve the junket tablet in the cold water. Warm the milk very slowly

to 100 degrees Fahrenheit, testing the temperature to make sure that it

is right. If a thermometer is not on hand, this can be done by dropping

a drop on the back of the hand. When neither heat nor cold can be felt

from this drop of milk, it may be known to be very near the body

temperature, the temperature at which rennin is active. If temperature

is found to be too high, the milk must be cooled before the tablet is

added. When the desired temperature has been reached, add the sugar, the

alt, the junket dissolved in the water, and the flavoring. Then pour all

into individual molds and keep it where it will remain warm for about 10

minutes, at the end of which it should be firm like a custard and may be

cooled. Keep the junket cool until it is to be served, when it may be

turned out of the mold or served in it. As junket will turn to whey if

it is broken with a spoon to any extent, serving it in the mold is the

better plan.

63. Junket With. Fruit.--The addition of fruit to junket, makes an

attractive dessert for both sick and well people. If the fruit used is

permissible in the diet of an invalid, its combination with junket adds

variety to the diet. In the making of this dessert, all juice should be

carefully drained from the fruit before the junket is poured over it.

Canned or fresh fruits may be used with equally good results.

JUNKET WITH FRUIT

(Sufficient to Serve Eight)

1 junket tablet

1 Tb. cold water

1 qt. milk

1/4 c. sugar

1/4 tsp. salt

Flavoring

8 halves of canned peaches or

1 c. of berries or small fruit

Make a junket as directed in the preceding recipe. Drain all juice from

the fruit and place a half peach or a spoonful of fruit in the bottom of

each of the eight molds and pour the junket over it to fill the mold.

Let it solidify and serve cold.

64. CHOCOLATE JUNKET.--Chocolate added to plain junket not only varies

the junket dessert, but also adds food value, since chocolate contains a

large quantity of fat that is easily digested by most persons. Where the

flavor of chocolate is found agreeable, such junket may be served in

place of the plain junket.

CHOCOLATE JUNKET

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

3 c. milk

2 sq. chocolate

6 Tb. sugar

3/4 c. water

1/4 tsp. salt

1/2 tsp. vanilla

1 junket tablet

Heat the milk to 100 degrees Fahrenheit, testing in the manner explained

in Art. 62. Melt the chocolate in a saucepan, add to it the sugar and 1

cupful of water, and cook until smooth; then cool and add to the warm

milk, putting in the salt, vanilla, and junket tablet dissolved in

cupful of the water. Turn the junket into a dish or into molds and let

stand in a warm place until set; then chill and serve. In preparing this

recipe, it will be well to note that if sweet chocolate is used less

sugar than is specified may be employed.

65. CARAMEL JUNKET.--In the making of caramel junket, browned, or

caramelized, sugar and water take the place of part of the milk, and

while a certain amount of the sugar is reduced in the browning, the

caramel is still very high in food value and adds nutritive material to

the dessert. There is nothing about caramel junket to prevent its being

given to any one able to take plain junket, and if it is made correctly

it has a very delightful flavor.

CARAMEL JUNKET

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

3 c. milk

1/2 c. sugar

1/2 c. boiling water

1/4 tsp. salt

1 tsp. vanilla

1 junket tablet

Whipped cream

1/4 c. chopped nuts

Heat the milk to 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Caramelize the sugar by melting

it in a saucepan directly over the flame until it is a light-brown

color; then stir in the boiling water and cook until the caramel and the

water become a sirup, after which cool and add to the milk Add the

salt, the vanilla, and the junket tablet dissolved in a tablespoonful of

cold water Pour the mixture into a dish, let it stand in a warm place

until it sets; then chill, cover with sweetened whipped cream, sprinkle

with chopped nuts, and serve.

RECIPES FOR WHITE SAUCE

66. Three white sauces are commonly used for different purposes, and in

each one of them milk is the basis. These sauces differ from one another

in thickness, and include thin white sauce, which is used for cream

toast and soups; medium white sauce, which is used for dressing

vegetables and is flavored in various ways to accompany meats, patties,

or croquettes; and thick white sauce, which is used to mix with the

materials used for croquettes in order to hold them together. To insure

the best results, the proportion of flour and liquid should be learned

for each kind, and to avoid the formation of lumps the proper method of

mixing should be carefully followed out. A white sauce properly made is

perfectly smooth, and since only little care is needed to produce such a

result it is inexcusable to serve a lumpy sauce. Also, nothing is more

disagreeable than thick, pasty sauce, but this can be avoided by

employing the right proportion of flour and milk. The ingredients and

their proportions for the various kinds of white sauce are as follows:

THIN WHITE SAUCE

1 c. milk

1 Tb. butter

1 Tb. flour

1/2 tsp. salt

MEDIUM WHITE SAUCE

1 c. milk

2 Tb. butter

2 Tb. flour

1/2 tsp. salt

THICK WHITE SAUCE

1 c. milk

2 Tb. butter

1/4 c. (4 Tb.) flour

1/2 tsp. salt

It will be easy to remember the proportions for these three sauces if it

is observed that each one doubles the previous one in the quantity of

flour used, the thin one having 1 tablespoonful to 1 cupful of milk, the

medium one 2 tablespoonfuls to 1 cupful of milk, and the thick one 4

tablespoonfuls to 1 cupful of milk. To produce these sauces the

ingredients may be combined in three different ways, each of which has

its advantages. These methods, which are here given, should be carefully

observed, for they apply not only to the making of this particular

sauce, but to the combining of fat, starch, and liquid in any sauce.

Method 1.--Heat the milk, being careful that it does not scorch. Brown

the butter slightly in a saucepan, add the flour and salt, and stir the

mixture until it is perfectly smooth and has a deep cream color. Then

add the hot milk gradually, stirring to prevent the formation of lumps.

Cook 5 minutes, stirring constantly to prevent the sauce from scorching.

Sauce made according to this method does not require long cooking

because the flour added to the hot fat cooks quickly. In fact, it is a

very desirable method, for the browned butter and the flour lend flavor

to the sauce. Many otherwise unattractive or rather tasteless foods can

be made much more appetizing by the addition of white sauce made in

this way.

Method 2.--Put the milk on to heat. While this is heating, stir the

butter, flour, and salt together until they are soft and well mixed;

then add the hot milk to them slowly, stirring constantly. Place over

the heat and finish cooking, or cook in a double boiler. Sauce made by

this method requires longer cooking than the preceding one and it has

less flavor.

Method 3.--Heat the milk, reserving a small portion. Stir the flour

smooth with the cold milk and add it to the hot milk, stirring rapidly.

Add the butter and the salt, and continue to stir if cooked over the

heat; if cooked in a double boiler, stir only until the mixture is

completely thickened and then continue to cook for 10 or 15 minutes.

When butter is added to the mixture in this way, it is likely to float

on top, especially if too much is used. A better sauce may be made

according to this method by using thin cream for the liquid and omitting

the butter.

MILK, BUTTER, AND CHEESE (PART 1)

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) When milk is used in a meal, what kinds of food may be omitted?

(2) Name the chief uses of milk in the dietary.

(3) Why is it possible for a child to remain in normal condition if

given only milk for a long period of time?

(4) Name the solids contained in milk and tell for what each one is

valuable.

(5) What causes milk to sour?

(6) What are the characteristics of wholesome milk?

(7) What is meant by the adulteration of milk?

(8) What quality of milk is of the most importance to the health of

those using milk?

(9) (a) Why is dirty milk dangerous? (b) Pour a quart of the milk

you purchase regularly through a pad of cotton. Note the result and

report the condition of the milk by comparing the cotton with the disks

shown in Fig. 2.

(10) Name some of the ways in which milk is likely to become

contaminated.

(11) What is the safest kind of market milk to buy?

(12) Describe the conditions under which milk of this kind is marketed.

(13) (a) What is pasteurized milk? (b) What is the purpose of

pasteurization?

(14) How may milk be pasteurized in the home?

(15) (a) When should milk be sterilized? (b) What changes take place

in the sterilization of milk?

(16) What points should be considered in the purchase of milk?

(17) Why is it necessary to give milk considerable care in the home?

(18) Mention the precautions that should be observed in caring for milk.

(19) (a) How is milk affected by cooking? (b) Describe the best way

to heat milk.

(20) Give the proportions of flour and liquid required in each of the

three varieties of white sauce.

* * * * *

BUTTER AND BUTTER SUBSTITUTES (PART 2)

* * * * *

BUTTER

1. BUTTER is the fatty constituent of milk. It is obtained by skimming

or separating the cream from milk and churning it in order to make the

particles of fat adhere to one another. Butter is used largely in the

household as an article of food, for it is one of the most appetizing

and digestible forms of fat.

To supply the demand for butter, it is produced domestically in the home

and on farms and commercially in dairies and large establishments. The

principle of all churns used for butter making is practically the same.

They simply agitate the cream so that the butter-fat globules in it are

brought together in masses of such size as to enable the butter maker to

separate them from the buttermilk. Butter is seasoned, or salted, to

give it a desirable flavor and to improve its keeping qualities; it is

washed, or worked, in order to distribute the salt evenly, to separate

from it as much of the curd and other non-fatty constituents of the

cream as can be conveniently removed, to bring it into a compact, waxy

mass, and to give it texture. The United States authorities have set a

standard for the composition of butter, which allows this product to

contain not more than 16 per cent. of water and requires it to have at

least 82.5 per cent. of butter fat.

2. ECONOMICAL USE OF BUTTER.--In the home, butter is used on the table

and in the cooking of many foods. Hardly any article of food has such

general use as this one; in fact, a meal is usually considered to be

incomplete without it, both as an accompaniment to bread, rolls,

biscuits, or whatever variety of these is used, and as an ingredient in

the cooking of some foods that require fat. But butter is not cheap, so

that the wise and economical use of this food in the home is a point

that should not be overlooked by the housewife. This precaution is very

important, it having been determined that butter, as well as other fats,

is wasted to a great extent; and still it is true that no other material

can be so economically utilized. The very smallest amount of any kind of

fat should be carefully saved, for there are numerous uses to which it

can be put. Even though it is mixed with other food, it can always be

melted out, clarified--that is, freed from foreign substances--and then

used for some purpose in cooking. The chief way in which butter is

wasted is in the unnecessary and improper use of it, points that a

little careful thought will do much to remedy.

3. FLAVOR AND COMPOSITION OF BUTTER.--That the housewife may have an

understanding of the food substances found in butter and also learn how

to determine the quantity of butter needed for her family, she should

become familiar with the composition of this food. The flavor of butter

depends to a great extent on the kind of cream from which it is made,

both sweet and sour cream being used for this purpose. Of these two

kinds, sour cream is the preferable one, because it gives to the butter

a desirable flavor. Still, the unsalted butter that is made from sweet

cream is apparently growing in favor, although it is usually more

expensive than salted butter. The difference in price is due to the fact

that unsalted butter spoils readily.

4. So far as its food substances are concerned, butter is composed

largely of fat, but it also contains water, protein in the form of

casein, and mineral matter. The quantity of water contained in butter

determines to a large extent the weight of butter, since water is

heavier than fat; but as only 16 per cent, of water is allowed, butter

that contains more water than this is considered to be adulterated. As

very little milk is retained in butter, only a small percentage of

protein is found in this food. However, a considerable quantity of

mineral salts are present, and these make it more valuable than most of

the other fats. Because of the nature of its composition--a very high

percentage of fat and a low percentage of protein--butter is distinctly

a fuel food, that is, a heat-producing food. Of course, there are

cheaper fats, some of which are even better heat-producing foods than

butter, but as their flavor is not especially agreeable to some persons,

they are not used so extensively.

In view of the nature of the composition of this food, an ounce of

butter a day is the average allowance for each person when the diet of a

family contains meat and such other fats as lard, olive oil, etc. At the

most, 1/2 pound of butter should be purchased each week for each member

of the family for table use, and fats cheaper than butter should be used

for cooking purposes.

5. PURCHASING BUTTER.--As in the case of milk, in order that the

housewife may judge the quality of the butter she purchases, she will do

well to look into the cleanliness and sanitary condition of the dairy

that produces it. Too much attention cannot be given to this matter, for

if cream becomes contaminated from careless handling, the same

contamination is liable to occur in the butter made from it. Butter that

is produced in dairies that make large quantities of it usually has not

much opportunity to become contaminated before it reaches the consumer,

for it is generally pressed into 1-pound prints, and each one of these

is then wrapped and placed in a paper carton. On the other hand, the

farmer and the dairyman doing a small business do not find it profitable

to install the equipment required to put up butter in this way, so they

usually pack their butter into firkins or crocks or make it into rolls.

When such butter goes to market, it is generally placed in a

refrigerator with more butter of the same sort, some of which is good

and some bad. As butter absorbs any strong odor present in the

refrigerator and is perhaps cut and weighed in a most unsanitary manner,

the good becomes contaminated with the bad. While butter of this kind is

perhaps a few cents cheaper than that which is handled in a more

sanitary way, it is less desirable, and if possible should be avoided by

the housewife. In case butter is obtained from a certain farm, the

conditions on that farm should be looked into for the same reason that

the conditions in a dairy are investigated.

6. To be able to select good butter, the housewife should also be

familiar with its characteristics. In color, butter to be good should be

an even yellow, neither too pale nor too bright, and should contain no

streaks. The light streaks that are sometimes found in butter indicate

insufficient working. As to odor, butter should be pleasing and

appetizing, any foreign or strong, disagreeable odor being extremely

objectionable. Stale butter or that which is improperly kept develops

an acid called butyric acid, which gives a disagreeable odor and

flavor to butter and often renders it unfit for use.

7. CARE OF BUTTER.--The precautions that the farmer and dairyman are

called on to observe in the making and handling of butter should be

continued by the housewife after she purchases butter for home use. The

chief point for her to remember is that butter should be kept as cold as

possible, because a low temperature prevents it from spoiling, whereas a

high one causes it to become soft and less appetizing. The most

satisfactory place in which to keep butter is the refrigerator, where it

should be placed in the compartment located directly under the ice and

in which the milk is kept, for here it will not come in contact with

foods that might impart their flavors to it. Should no refrigerator be

available, some other means of keeping butter cold must be resorted to,

such as a cool cellar or basement or a window box.

The way in which butter is bought determines to a certain extent the

method of caring for it. If it is bought in paper cartons, it should be

rewrapped and replaced in the carton each time some is cut off for use.

In case it is bought in bulk, it should never be allowed to remain in

the wooden dish in which it is often sold; rather, it should be put into

a crock or a jar that can be tightly covered.

8. Attention should also be given to butter that is cut from the supply

for the table or for cooking purposes and that is not entirely used.

Such butter should never be returned to the original supply, but should

be kept in a separate receptacle and used for cooking. If it contains

foreign material, it can be clarified by allowing it to stand after it

has melted until this has settled and then dipping or pouring the clear

fat from the top. Butter that has become rancid or has developed a bad

flavor need not be wasted either, for it can be made ready for use in

cooking simply by pouring boiling water over it, allowing it to cool,

and then removing the layer of fat that comes to the top. Such butter,

of course, cannot be used for serving on the table. Still, consideration

on the part of the housewife to just such matters as these will prevent

much of the waste that prevails in the household in the use of

this food.

9. COOKING WITH BUTTER.--While some housewives make it a practice to use

butter in cooking of all kinds, there are uses in which other fats are

preferable; or, in case butter is desired, there are certain points to

be observed in its use. For instance, butter is rendered less digestible

by cooking it at a high temperature, as in frying or sauteing; also, it

cannot be used to any extent for the frying of foods, as it burns very

readily. If it is used for sauteing, the dish is made much more

expensive than is necessary, so that in most cases a cheaper fat should

be employed for this purpose. In addition, a point to remember is that

this fat should not be used to grease the pans in which cakes and hot

breads are baked unless it is first melted, because the milk contained

in the butter burns easily; after it is melted, only the top fat should

be used. When butter is desired for very rich cakes and for pastry, it

is usually washed in cold water to remove the milk. To neutralize the

sour milk contained in butter that is used for baking purposes, a little

soda is sometimes employed.

Further economy can be exercised in the use of butter if a little

thought is given to the matter. For instance, when butter is melted and

poured over meat or fish that has been broiled or over vegetables that

have been cooked in a plain way, much of it usually remains in the dish

and is wasted. Such butter can be utilized again. Since butter undergoes

a change when it is cooked, it should be mixed with cooked foods to

flavor them, rather than be subjected to the temperature necessary

for cooking.

When butter is used for spreading sandwiches, it usually will be found

advisable to soften the butter by creaming it with a spoon, but it

should never be melted for this purpose.

10. SERVING BUTTER.--When butter is used for the table, some

consideration must be given to the serving of it. Probably the most

usual way of serving butter is to place a slice of it on a plate and

then pass the plate with a knife to each person at the table. The

advantage of this method is that each person can take the amount desired

and thus prevent waste. However, a still more desirable way of serving

butter that is to be passed is to cut it into small cubes or squares or

to shape it into small balls and then serve it with a fork or a butter

knife. To prevent the pieces or balls of butter from melting in warm

weather, cracked ice may be placed on the butter dish with them. Butter

cut into cubes or squares may also be served on an individual butter

dish or an individual bread-and-butter plate placed at each person's

place before the meal is served. Whichever plan is adopted, any

fragments of butter that remain on the plates after a meal should be

gathered up and used for cooking purposes.

11. Butter that comes in pound prints lends itself readily to the

cutting of small cubes or squares for serving. Such butter may be cut by

drawing a string through the print or by using a knife whose cutting

edge is covered with paper, a small piece of the oiled paper such as

that in which the butter is wrapped answering very well for

this purpose.

If butter balls are desired for serving, they may be rolled with butter

paddles in the manner shown in Fig. 1. To make butter balls, put wads of

the butter to be used into ice water so as to make them hard. Then place

each wad between the paddles, as shown, and give the paddles a circular

motion. After a little practice, it will be a simple matter to make

butter balls that will add to the attractiveness of any meal. Paddles

made especially for this purpose can be purchased in all stores that

sell kitchen utensils.

12. Sometimes, for practical purposes, it is desired to know the

quantity of butter that is served to each person. In the case of print

butter, this is a simple matter to determine. First mark the pound

print in the center in order to divide it in half; after cutting it

into two pieces, cut each half into two, and finally each fourth into

two. With the pound print cut into eight pieces, divide and cut each

eighth into four pieces. As there will be thirty-two small pieces, each

one will represent one thirty-second of a pound, or 1/2 ounce.

BUTTER SUBSTITUTES

13. In about the year 1870, through a desire to procure a cheaper

article than butter for the poorer classes of France, came the

manufacture of the first substitute for butter. Since that time the use

of butter substitutes has gradually increased, until at the present time

millions of pounds are consumed every year. A certain amount of

prejudice against their use exists, but much of this is unnecessary for

they are less likely to be contaminated with harmful bacteria than the

poorer qualities of butter. Then, too, they do not spoil so readily, and

for this reason they can be handled with greater convenience

than butter.

14. OLEOMARGARINE.--The best substitute for butter and the one most

largely used is called oleomargarine, which in the United States alone

constitutes about two and 1/2 per cent. of all the fat used as butter.

This fat is called by various other names, such as margarine, and

butterine, but oleomargarine is the name by which the United States

authorities recognize the product. It is made by churning fats other

than butter fat with milk or cream until a butterlike consistency is

obtained. Originally, pure beef fat was employed for this purpose, and

while beef fat is used to a great extent at present, lard, cottonseed

oil, coconut oil, and peanut oil are also used. Whatever fats are

selected are churned with milk, cream, and, for the finest grades, a

considerable percentage of the very best pure butter. After they are

churned, the oleomargarine is worked, salted, and packed in the same

manner as butter.

15. The manufacture and sale of butter substitutes are controlled by

laws that, while they do not specify the kind of fat to be used, state

that all mixtures of butter with other fats must be sold as

oleomargarine. They also require that a tax of 10 cents a pound be paid

on all artificially colored oleomargarine; therefore, while coloring

matter is used in some cases, this product is usually sold without

coloring. In such an event, coloring matter is given with each pound of

oleomargarine that is sold. Before using the oleomargarine, this

coloring matter is simply worked into the fat until it is

evenly colored.

16. RENOVATED BUTTER.--Another substitute that is sometimes used to take

the place of the best grades of butter is renovated, or process,

butter. This is obtained by purifying butter that is dirty and rancid

and that contains all sorts of foreign material and then rechurning it

with fresh cream or milk. The purifying process consists in melting the

butter, removing the scum from the top, as well as the buttermilk,

brine, and foreign materials that settle, and then blowing air through

the fat to remove any odors that it might contain. Butter that is thus

purified is replaced on the market, but in some states the authorities

have seen fit to restrict its sale. While such restrictions are without

doubt justifiable, it is possible to buy butter that is more

objectionable than renovated, or process, butter, but that has no

restriction on it.

17. METHOD OF TESTING BUTTER SUBSTITUTES.--Very often oleomargarine and

process butter bear such a close resemblance to genuine butter that it

is almost impossible to detect the difference. However, there is a

simple test by which these substitutes can always be distinguished from

butter, and this should be applied whenever there is any doubt about the

matter. To make this test, place the fat in a tablespoon or a small dish

and heat it directly over the flame until it boils, stirring it

occasionally to assist in the melting. If it is oleomargarine or process

butter, it will sputter noisily and take on a curdled appearance;

whereas, if it is butter, it will melt and even boil without sputtering

although it foams to a certain extent.

* * * * *

CHEESE

CHARACTERISTICS AND CARE OF CHEESE

18. ORIGIN, PRODUCTION, AND USE OF CHEESE.--Cheese is a product that is

manufactured from the solids of milk, and it provides a valuable food.

The making of cheese was known in ancient times, it having probably

originated through a desire to utilize an oversupply of milk. When

cheese was first made, the fact that bacteria were present was not

known, nor were the reasons for the spoiling of milk understood; but it

was learned that milk can be kept if most of its water is removed. This

discovery was very important, for it led to various methods of making

cheese and proved that cheese making was a satisfactory and convenient

means of storing nourishment in a form that was not bulky and that would

keep for long periods of time. From a very small beginning, the

different methods of making cheese became popular, until at the present

time more than three hundred varieties are made and their manufacture

forms one of the large industries of the world.

In the United States, nearly all the cheese used up to about 50 years

ago was made on farms, and to a great extent by housewives, but about

that time a factory for the making of this product was started in the

state of New York, and it proved a profitable enterprise. From this

beginning, the business of making cheese commercially in this country

has grown until now cheese is almost entirely a factory-made product, in

the manufacture of which the states of New York and Wisconsin lead.

19. In either the commercial or the home production of cheese, skim milk

with all or part of the cream removed is used for some varieties, while

whole milk is used for others, the composition depending largely on the

kind of milk that is employed. Rennet is added to the milk to coagulate

it, and then the curd, from which nearly all the water is removed, is

allowed to ripen. To produce characteristic odors, flavors, and

consistency, various coloring and flavoring materials, as well as

bacteria, are added to the curd. The action of these bacteria is really

the chief factor in the making of cheese and they are therefore not only

desirable but necessary. Non-desirable bacteria, however, result in the

formation of bad odors, flavors, and gases in the finished product and

these must be carefully guarded against by cheese makers.

20. Cheese offers a valuable source of nutriment for the body, because

its food value ranks high. The food value in 1 pound of cheese is

equivalent to that in 2 pounds of beef, that in 24 eggs, or that in 4

pounds of fish. The use of cheese, however, is not nearly so great as

its food value warrants, the amount used in the United States per

capita being only about 3-1/2 pounds annually. This is a condition that

should be overcome, for there is a large variety of ways in which

cheese can be used to advantage in the diet. When eaten raw, it is very

appetizing, and when used with soups, sauces, and foods that have a

bland taste, it lends additional flavor and makes an especially

attractive dish. In addition, the fact that it is an economical food

and can be conveniently kept and stored should recommend its frequent

use.

21. COMPOSITION OF CHEESE.--Since cheese is a product of milk, it is

somewhat similar to milk in composition, but the change that occurs in

the formation of cheese causes some differences. Nearly all the water

present in milk is removed during the manufacture of cheese, so that

this product becomes a concentrated food made up of all the nourishment

that milk contains except small amounts of albumin, milk sugar, and

mineral matter. These, because they are in solution in the water, are

lost when the whey is separated from the curd. The food substances that

occur in the largest amounts are fat and protein in the form of casein,

which is the tissue-building material of milk. Cheese made from milk

that contains some cream has in it a greater amount of fat than that

made from completely skimmed milk. Besides these two chief food

substances, cheese contains a small amount of milk sugar, mineral

matter, and water.

22. On account of the large quantity of protein found in cheese, this

food can readily take the place of meat in the diet; in fact, it has

some decided advantages over meat. As has been pointed out, cheese

yields more than twice as much food value as an equal weight of beef.

Then, too, the buying and care of cheese are much simpler matters than

the buying and care of meat. As it does not require the low temperature

that meat requires and does not spoil so readily, it can be bought in

considerable quantity and used as desired without danger of spoiling and

loss. In addition, the use of cheese as food does not require so much

skill in preparation as meat does, nor is there loss of flavor and

nutriment in its preparation, as is often the case with meat.

23. QUALITY OF CHEESE.--Every variety of cheese has its own standard and

quality, some being hard and dry, others moist, and still others very

soft. The difference in quality is due to the way in which the curd is

coagulated, the amount of pressure that is put on it, and the ripening

of the cheese. The holes that often occur in cheese and give it a porous

appearance are formed by gas, which is the product of the growth of

bacteria. A large number of very small holes in cheese indicate that

the milk used to make it was not clean and contained many kinds of

bacteria. This condition could be overcome by the use of absolutely

clean milk; indeed, milk of this kind is as necessary for the production

of good cheese as it is for the making of good butter. Certain cheeses,

such as Limburger and Roquefort, have a typical odor and flavor, the

odor being due to bacteria and the flavor to mold. These are carefully

grown and introduced into the cheese during its manufacture.

24. CARE OF CHEESE.--The very strong odor and flavor that characterize

cheese make it necessary that care be given to cheese in the home in

order to prevent it from coming in contact with other foods and

transmitting its odor and flavor to them. The best place to keep cheese,

particularly the soft varieties, is in the refrigerator, where it should

be placed in a closed receptacle and kept as far as possible from foods

that are easily tainted. It is well to avoid a damp place for the

keeping of cheese, as mold frequently develops on the outside when too

much moisture is present; but in case mold does appear it can be removed

by cutting a thin slice from the side on which it has grown. On the

other hand, cheese that is kept in a dry place becomes hard and dry

unless it is wrapped in oiled paper or a damp cloth. However, such

cheese need not be thrown away, for there are numerous uses,

particularly in cooking, to which it can be put.

* * * * *

KINDS OF CHEESE

CLASSIFICATION OF VARIETIES

25. The cheese used in the United States may be included under two

leading classes, namely, foreign cheese and domestic cheese. Since

the foreign cheeses are imported, they are more expensive than the

cheeses made here, and should not be bought if cheese is to be used as

an economical article of food. They are valuable chiefly for their

flavor and are generally bought for this reason. The domestic cheeses

can be used in larger quantities, for, besides being less expensive,

they are usually of a milder type and are more easily digested. To

enable the housewife to become familiar with the principal varieties of

each of these classes, a discussion of them, including their names,

characteristics, and, in some cases, their use and the method of

making, is here given.

IMPORTED CHEESE

26. Each of the European countries has originated its own peculiar kind

of cheese, which remains representative of a certain people or locality.

The majority of these cheeses have met with so much favor in the United

States that large quantities of them are continually imported. A few of

them have been copied here with success, but others have not been

successfully made. While these are not in such common use as the

domestic cheeses, it is well for every one to know their names and the

characteristics by which they can be identified.

27. ENGLISH CHEESE.--Chief among the kinds of cheeses made in England is

CHEDDAR CHEESE. It is rich, double-thick cream cheese, ranging from a

pale to a dark yellow, although when uncolored it may be white. Such

cheese, when fresh, has a milk flavor, but when it is well ripened it

has a characteristic sharp taste. New Cheddar cheese is soft, but not

waxy, in texture and may readily be shaved or broken into small pieces;

when it is well ripened, it may be grated. English Cheddar cheese is

not unlike AMERICAN CHEDDAR CHEESE, or, as it is commonly called,

American cream cheese, which is shown by b. In fact the American

variety is made according to the method used for the English. Owing to

its characteristics, flavor, and abundance, Cheddar cheese, both

English and American, is the kind that is used most extensively in the

United States.

ENGLISH DAIRY CHEESE, shown at d, is similar to Cheddar cheese,

although it has a reddish color and, on account of the method of

manufacture, it is harder. This kind of cheese lends itself well to

cooking, as it may be easily grated.

CHESHIRE CHEESE, a well-known English variety, is a dry cream cheese

made from whole cow's milk. It is deep yellow or red in color, similar

in flavor to Cheddar cheese, and is used in much the same manner.

STILTON CHEESE, shown at m, is a hard cheese made from cow's milk to

which cream has been added and which is coagulated with rennet. Mold

is introduced into this cheese, so that it resembles Roquefort cheese,

which is shown at j.

28. HOLLAND CHEESE.--The variety of cheese shown at e, Fig. 4, is

known as EDAM CHEESE. It is a hard rennet cheese of a red color and is

mild in flavor. This kind of cheese is molded into the shape of a ball,

the outside of which is usually dyed red, and will keep for a long

period of time. Edam cheese is one of the important products of the

Netherlands, and while it is seldom used in cookery in the homes of this

country, it is served at the table. Usually a section of the top is cut

off to serve as a lid while the inside is scooped out as needed.

Sometimes, after most of the cheese has been removed, the hollow shell

is stuffed with macaroni or rice that has been cooked and seasoned and

the food then baked in the shell.

29. FRENCH CHEESES.--Among the French cheeses, the variety called

GRUYERE CHEESE, which is shown at f, Fig. 4, is well liked. It is

usually made of skim milk, has a yellow color and a mild, sweetish

flavor, and contains large holes like those found in Swiss and Emmenthal

cheeses, varieties that are very similar to it. Like these cheeses,

Gruyere cheese may be used in cooking or served without cooking, being

used considerably in the making of sandwiches.

BRIE CHEESE is a French variety of very soft cheese, with a strong

flavor and odor. It is made from whole or partly skimmed cow's milk

coagulated by means of rennet. This kind of cheese is used mostly as an

accompaniment to other foods.

CAMEMBERT CHEESE, which is shown at h, is also a soft cheese. It is

made by practically the same process as Brie cheese and is used in the

same way. This cheese has a typical odor. Its rind is thick and dry, but

its center is very soft, being sometimes almost liquid.

NEUFCHATEL CHEESE, which is shown at i, is a soft rennet cheese made

from cow's milk. It is made at Neufchatel-en-Bray, France, and not at

Neufchatel, Switzerland. This variety of cheese is wrapped in tin-foil

and sold in small packages. It is used chiefly for salads, sandwiches,

etc. As it does not keep well after the package is opened, the entire

contents should be used at one time.

ROQUEFORT CHEESE, which is shown at j, is a hard, highly flavored

cheese made from sheep's milk coagulated with rennet. It has a marbled

appearance, which is due to a greenish mold that is introduced.

Roquefort cheese is frequently served with crackers at the end of a

meal, and is well liked by many persons.

30. ITALIAN CHEESES.--From Italy is imported a cheese, called PARMESAN

CHEESE, that is used extensively for flavoring soups and macaroni

dishes. This cheese, which is shown at g, Fig. 4, is very hard and

granular and, provided it is well made, it will keep for years. Owing to

its characteristics, it may be easily grated. It can be bought by the

pound and grated as it is needed, or it can be secured already grated

in bottles.

GORGONZOLA, another Italian cheese, is shown at k. It is not unlike

Roquefort in appearance and in use, but it is made from whole cow's milk

coagulated with rennet. Into this cheese is also introduced a mold that

gives its center a streaked or mottled appearance.

31. SWISS CHEESES.--Possibly the best known cheese imported from

Switzerland is the variety known as SWISS, or SWITZER, CHEESE. This kind

of cheese has different names, depending on the district of Switzerland

in which it is made. Nevertheless all of them are similar and have a

mild, sweet flavor. Swiss cheese may be readily recognized by its pale

yellow color and the presence of large holes, although it resembles

Gruyere cheese very closely.

EMMENTHAL CHEESE is a variety of fairly hard cheese that originated in

Switzerland, but is now made in many other countries. It is similar to

Swiss cheese, being made from whole cow's milk and characterized by

large holes about 3 inches apart.

SAPSAGO CHEESE, shown at n, Fig. 4, is a skim-milk cheese made in

Switzerland. It is a very hard cheese, and therefore suitable for

grating. In the process of making this cheese, melilot, a clover-like

herb, is added, and this gives the cheese a green color and a

peculiar flavor.

32. BELGIAN CHEESE.--A cheese that originated in Belgium, but is now

manufactured in other countries, is the variety known as LIMBURG, or

LIMBURGER, CHEESE, cheese, which is shown at l, Fig. 4. It is a soft

rennet cheese made from whole cow's milk. It is very strong in taste and

smell, due to putrefactive germs that are added to the milk in its

manufacture.

DOMESTIC CHEESE

33. In the United States, efforts that have been exerted to make cheeses

similar to some of those produced in Europe have to a certain extent

been successful. American cheese makers have succeeded in making

several soft cream cheeses that resemble Neufchatel, some of which are

spiced or flavored with pimiento, olives, etc. In addition, Limburg and

Swiss cheeses have been successfully manufactured in Wisconsin, and

Brie, Neufchatel, and Camembert have been copied and are produced in New

York. Pineapple cheese, while of American origin, is really very much

like English Cheddar cheese, except that it is harder. But while these

fancy cheeses are desired by some persons and have a moderately large

sale, the cheese for which there is the most demand in America is the

so-called American Cheddar cheese, which, as has been stated, is made

according to the method used for English Cheddar cheese.

34. AMERICAN CHEDDAR CHEESE.--Since American Cheddar cheese is the kind

that is commonly used in this country, the way in which it is made will

be well to know. The milk used for this kind of cheese is first

inspected as to cleanliness and the extent of fermentation it has

undergone, and when these points are ascertained, it is ripened; that

is, allowed to sour to a certain degree of acidity. At this stage,

coloring matter is added, after which the milk is prepared for setting

by bringing it to a certain temperature. With the temperature at the

right point, rennet is added to coagulate the milk, or form the curd.

The milk is then allowed to remain undisturbed until the action of the

rennet is at a certain point, when the curd is cut into little

cube-shaped pieces by drawing two sets of knives through it and thus is

separated from the whey. As soon as the curd is cut, the temperature of

the mass is raised to help make the curd firm and to cause the little

cubes to retain their firmness, and during the entire heating process

the whole mass is stirred constantly to assist in the separation from

the whey. When the curd is sufficiently firm, the whey is removed and

the particles of curd are allowed to adhere and form into a solid mass.

If necessary, the curd is cut again into small pieces to get rid of the

excess whey; but if the curd is too dry, the pieces must be piled up

until they are four or five deep. During this process, which is known as

the cheddaring of the cheese, the curd is treated until it is of the

proper texture to be milled, that is, put into a mill and ground into

small pieces. The object of milling the curd is to cut it into pieces

small enough to permit of uniform salting and the further escape of

whey. When the curd has been brought to this point, it is salted and

then pressed into molds. Finally, it is wrapped and cured, or ripened.

35. BRICK CHEESE.--Another American cheese that seems to meet with a

popular demand is brick cheese. This kind of cheese, gets its name from

the fact that it is pressed into "bricks" under the weight of one or

two bricks. It is made from sweet milk, coagulated with rennet, cut

with curd knives, and heated in the whey to firm it. Brick cheese is

mild in flavor and of a moderately close texture. It is used chiefly as

an accompaniment to other foods.

36. AMERICAN HOME-MADE CHEESE.--The making of Cheddar cheese and brick

cheese is, of course, done commercially, but there is a kind of cheese

that can be made very conveniently in the home. This home-made cheese,

which is generally known as COTTAGE CHEESE, affords an excellent way in

which to utilize left-over sour milk, particularly if a quart or more

can be obtained at one time; smaller quantities can generally be used

for baking purposes.

If properly made, such cheese is very digestible. As it can be seasoned

and served in a variety of ways, it makes a delightful addition to

lunches or other light meals in which a protein dish, such as meat, is

undesirable. Skim milk does very well for this kind of cheese, so that

if the sour milk that is to be used has cream on it, the cream should be

removed before the cheese is made; otherwise, it will remain in the whey

and be lost. In case cream is desired to improve the texture and flavor

of the cheese, it should be added after the cheese is made.

37. To make cottage cheese, allow a quantity of sour milk to clabber,

that is, become curdled, and then place it on the back of the stove in a

thick vessel, such as a crock, until the whey begins to appear on the

top, turning it occasionally so that it will heat very slowly and

evenly. Do not allow the temperature to rise above 90 degrees

Fahrenheit, or the curd will become tough and dry. Remember that the two

things on which the success of this product depends are the flavor of

the milk used and the proper heating of it. No difficulty will be

encountered in the heating of the milk if a coal or a wood stove is

used, but in case a gas stove must be used, the vessel containing the

milk should be placed in a larger one containing warm water and the milk

should be heated in this manner until the curd and the whey begin to

separate. At this point, pour off all the whey possible, and turn the

curd into a cloth bag or a colander lined with cloth, as shown in Fig.

5, and allow any remaining whey to drip out. If, after the whey is

removed, the curd tastes sour, wash it with warm water and allow it to

drip again. Then season it with salt to suit the taste and, provided

cream is desired, add it at this time, using sweet or sour cream. To

work in the cream, press it into the curd with a spoon until the cheese

is quite smooth.

Cheese made in this way may be flavored with anything desirable. For

instance, chopped pimiento, parsley, olives, or nuts improve the flavor

of the cheese very much and make a very appetizing combination. The dry

curd mixed with any of these makes a delightful salad when it is pressed

into balls, garnished with lettuce, and served with salad dressing.

38. JUNKET COTTAGE CHEESE.--Another variety of cottage cheese can be

prepared by using sweet milk and forming the curd with a junket tablet,

one tablet being required for each quart of milk. To make cheese of this

kind, heat the milk until it is lukewarm, or not over 98 degrees

Fahrenheit, and then add the junket tablet dissolved in cold milk or

water. Keep the milk warm until the curd forms, and then break up the

curd with a spoon and pour the whole mass into a bag or a colander lined

with cloth. When all the whey is drained out, the curd, which will be

sweet, can be seasoned in any desired way or mixed with cream and

served. If more flavor is preferred, the curd may be allowed to sour or

may be mixed with sour cream.

39. BUTTERMILK CREAM CHEESE.--A slight variation from the cottage

cheeses just described is buttermilk cream cheese. This cheese is formed

from the curd of buttermilk, which is finer in texture and not so likely

to become tough as that formed from ordinary sour milk. To prepare

buttermilk cream cheese, warm the buttermilk slowly, being careful not

to allow the temperature to rise beyond 100 degrees Fahrenheit. As the

milk is heated, the curd will form and will gradually sink to the bottom

of the vessel. After this occurs, remove the whey and mix the curd with

a little thick cream. The result will be a mixture having a delightfully

creamy consistency.

SERVING CHEESE

40. Cheese does not lend itself readily to many ways of serving, still

it frequently adds zest to many foods. When grated, it may be passed

with tomato or vegetable soup and sprinkled in to impart an unusual

flavor. In this form it may also be served with macaroni and other

Italian pastes, provided cheese has not been included in the preparation

of such foods. When sliced, little slices may be served nicely with any

kind of pie or pastry and with some puddings, such as steamed fruit

puddings. Thin slices or squares of cheese and crackers served with

coffee after the dessert add a finishing touch to many meals. It will be

well to note that crackers to be served with cheese should always be

crisp. Unless they have just been taken from a fresh package, crackers

can be improved by placing them in a moderate oven for a few minutes

before serving. Also, firm crackers that do not crumble easily are best

to serve with cheese, water crackers being especially desirable.

* * * * *

RECIPES FOR CHEESE DISHES

EFFECT OF COOKING ON CHEESE

41. Because cheese is a highly concentrated food, it is generally

considered to be indigestible; but this matter can be remedied by mixing

the cheese with other foods and thus separating it into small particles

that are more readily digested. The way in which this may be done

depends on the nature of the cheese. Any of the dry cheeses or any of

the moist cheeses that have become dry may be grated or broken into

bits, but as it is difficult to treat the moist ones in this way, they

must be brought to a liquid state by means of heat before they can be

added to other foods. The cooking of cheese, however, has an effect on

this food that should be thoroughly understood.

It will be well to note, therefore, that the application of heat to the

form of protein found in cheese causes this food substance to coagulate

and harden, as in the case of the albumen of eggs. In the process of

coagulation, the first effect is the melting of the cheese, and when it

has been brought to this semiliquid state it can be easily combined with

other foods, such as milk, eggs, soups, and sauces. In forming such

combinations, the addition of a small amount of bicarbonate of soda

helps to blend the foods. Another characteristic of cheese that

influences the cooking of it is that the fat it contains melts only at a

low temperature, so that, on the whole, the methods of preparation that

require a low temperature are the best for cooking these foods. However,

a precaution that should be taken whenever cheese is heated is not to

cook it too long, for long cooking makes it hard and leathery in

consistency, and cheese in this state is difficult to digest.

VARIETY OF CHEESE DISHES

42. As has already been learned, cheese lends itself very readily to a

large variety of cooked dishes. For instance, it may be grated and

sprinkled on the top of mashed or creamed potatoes and then browned by

placing the dish in the oven. When it is grated or sliced, it may be

arranged between the layers of macaroni or other food used to make a

scalloped dish. Soups and sauces flavored with cheese are especially

appetizing, a cream sauce of this kind served over toast or rice making

an excellent luncheon dish. Toast or crackers spread with cheese and

placed in the oven just long enough for the cheese to melt are delicious

to serve with a salad course or with tea. To assist in the preparation

of such combinations, as well as other cheese dishes, a number of

recipes are here given. In making up these recipes, it will be well to

note that unless the variety of cheese is stated explicitly, use should

be made of American Cheddar cheese, or, as it is often called, American

cream cheese, or store cheese. Of course, some similar hard cheese

could be used if desired, but the kind mentioned is recommended for the

sake of economy.

43. CHEESE BONBONS.--A combination of cheese and nuts in the form of

cheese bonbons, besides being very tasty, is highly nutritious, since

both the cheese and the nuts used in making them are high in food

value. Such bonbons, may be served with a light salad, such as a

vegetable or a fruit salad, to add food value

to the dish, or they may be served with wafers to take the place of a

salad, when a small amount of some kind of tart jelly goes nicely with

them. If the dessert for the dinner has been a very light one, these

bonbons may be served with coffee and wafers after the dessert. They may

be made as follows:

CHEESE BONBONS

(Sufficient for Twelve Bonbons)

1 pkg. Neufchatel or cream cheese

2 Tb. finely chopped pimiento

1/2 tsp. salt

Few grains of paprika

1/3 c. half English-walnut meats

Work the cheese smooth with the pimiento and other seasoning, and if the

mixture is too dry add a little cream. Shape this into small balls,

press each ball flat, and then place a half nut on top of each. If the

pimiento is not desired, it may be omitted.

44. CHEESE SOUFFLE.--As a dish that will take the place of meat in a

light meal is often desired, cheese souffle, which is comparatively high

in food value, finds much favor. This dish contains milk, eggs, and

cheese, as is shown in the accompanying recipe, and so may actually be

considered as a protein dish and used accordingly. Souffle is served in

the dish in which it is baked, but if it is quite firm and is to be

eaten at once, it may be removed from the ramekin to a plate.

CHEESE SOUFFLE

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

3 Tb. butter

4 Tb. flour

1-1/4 c. milk

3/4 c. grated cheese

Dash of paprika

1/2 tsp. salt

3 eggs

Melt the butter, add the flour, mix well, and then gradually add the

milk, which should be scalded. To this sauce add the cheese, paprika,

and salt. When thoroughly mixed, remove from the fire and add the beaten

yolks of eggs, beating rapidly. Cool and fold in the stiffly beaten

whites of the eggs. Pour into a buttered baking dish or in ramekins and

bake 20 minutes in a slow oven. Serve at once.

45. CHEESE OMELET.--Grated cheese added to an omelet gives it a

delightful flavor. Since such an omelet is a high-protein dish, it

should never be served in the same meal in which meat, fish, or other

protein foods are served, but should be used as the main dish of a

luncheon or a light supper.

CHEESE OMELET

(Sufficient to Serve Four)

4 eggs

4 Tb. hot water

1/2 tsp. salt

2 Tb. bread crumbs

1 c. grated cheese

1 Tb. butter

Beat the egg yolks thoroughly and add to them the hot water, salt,

crumbs, and cheese. Beat the egg whites until stiff, but not dry, and

fold them carefully into the yolk mixture. Heat the butter in an omelet

pan. Pour in the mixture, brown very slowly over the heat, and then

place in the oven to cook the top. Serve at once.

46. CHEESE SAUCE.--To give a distinctive flavor to white sauce, cheese

is often added to it. A sauce flavored in this way lends itself nicely

to the garnishing of croquettes or souffles, and it will be found quite

tasty if it is served over some vegetables, such as steamed cauliflower,

mashed potatoes, or rice served as a vegetable. Such sauce may also be

served over toast to make an attractive luncheon dish.

CHEESE SAUCE

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 c. milk

4 Tb. flour

4 Tb. butter

1/2 tsp. salt

1/4 tsp. paprika

1/2 c. grated cheese

Make a white sauce of the milk, flour, butter, salt, and paprika, and to

it add the grated cheese. If desired, a dash of catsup or chili sauce

may be added for flavoring.

47. CHEESE TOAST.--When toast has added to it eggs, milk, and cheese, as

in the recipe here given, it is sufficiently high in protein to serve as

a meat substitute and is a particularly good dish for a light meal. It

combines well with a vegetable salad for luncheon and is an excellent

dish to serve for Sunday night supper, when very little else need be

served with it.

CHEESE TOAST

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 c. milk

4 Tb. flour

4 Tb. butter

1/2 tsp. salt

3/4 c. grated cheese

2 hard-cooked eggs

6 squares of toast

Make a white sauce of the milk, flour, butter, and salt, and to it add

1/2 cupful of the grated cheese and the egg whites chopped fine. Arrange

the toast on a platter, pour the sauce over it, sprinkle the top with

the egg yolks that have been run through a ricer or a sieve, and

sprinkle the remaining 1/4 cupful of cheese over all. Place in hot oven

or under a broiler until the cheese melts a little. Serve hot.

48. WELSH RAREBIT.--Whenever a dish that can be made in a chafing dish

is desired, Welsh rarebit is immediately thought of. This is possibly

due to the fact that this tasty cheese dish is very often served at

evening parties, when a crowd may gather around a table and enjoy the

preparation of this food in the chafing dish. This kind of cooking

utensil, together with its outfit, which consists of a long-handled

spoon and fork, is shown in Fig. 7. As will be observed, a chafing dish

consists of a frame to which is attached a lamp that provides the heat,

a pan in which water is placed, another pan with a handle in which the

food is cooked, and a cover. The heat for cooking is furnished by

alcohol, although it is possible to get chafing dishes that are heated

by electricity. Chafing dishes are used by many housewives, for in

addition to the use mentioned, they serve very well for the making of

practically any kind of creamed dish, including those in which sea foods

and vegetables are used, as well as for the sauteing of foods. It should

not be understood, however, that Welsh rarebit must be made in a chafing

dish, for this food can be prepared as well in a heavy frying pan or a

double boiler; nor should it be taken for granted that it is served only

at parties, for it may be served as the main dish for luncheon or

supper. Rarebit is often flavored with ale or beer, but this is not

required to make an appetizing dish, as the following recipe shows.

WELSH RAREBIT

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 Tb. butter

1 Tb. flour

1 c. milk

1/4 tsp. salt

1/8 tsp. paprika

1/2 lb. cheese cut into small pieces

6 slices of toast or 6 wafers

Melt the butter, add to it the flour, and stir until smooth. Gradually

add the milk, and cook for a few minutes; then add the salt, paprika,

and cheese, stirring until the cheese is melted. The finished rarebit

should not be stringy. Pour over the toast or wafers and serve.

49. ENGLISH MONKEY.--Another cheese dish that is frequently made in a

chafing dish and served from it is English monkey, but this may likewise

be made with ordinary kitchen utensils and served directly on plates

from the kitchen or from a bowl on the table. A dish of this kind is

most satisfactory if it is served as soon as the sauce is poured over

toast or wafers and before they have had time to become soaked. English

monkey may be made according to the following recipe and served for the

same purposes as Welsh rarebit.

ENGLISH MONKEY

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. bread crumbs

1 c. milk

1 Tb. butter

1/2 c. soft cheese cut into small pieces

1 egg

1/2 tsp. salt

6 buttered wafers

Soak the bread crumbs in the milk. Melt the butter and add to it the

cheese, stirring until the cheese is melted. Then add the soaked crumbs,

the slightly beaten egg, and the salt. Cook for a few minutes and pour

over wafers and serve. If desired, toast may be used in place of

the wafers.

50. CHEESE-AND-MACARONI LOAF.--Macaroni combined with cheese makes a

high-protein dish that very readily takes the place of meat and that may

be served as the main dish in a dinner. If this combination is made into

a loaf and baked well in an oblong bread pan, it may be turned out on a

platter and cut into slices. In case a loaf is not desired, it may be

baked in a baking dish and served directly from that. In either form,

it is made more appetizing by the addition of a tomato sauce.

CHEESE-AND-MACARONI LOAF

(Sufficient to Serve Eight)

1/2 c. macaroni (inch lengths)

1 c. milk

1 c. bread crumbs

2 Tb. chopped green peppers

1 Tb. chopped onion

1 Tb. chopped parsley

2 eggs

2 tsp. salt

1/8 tsp. pepper

1 c. grated cheese

1 Tb. butter

Cook the macaroni according to the directions given in Cereals. When

it is thoroughly soft, drain off the water and mix the macaroni with the

milk, bread crumbs, green pepper, onion, parsley, well-beaten egg, salt,

pepper, and grated cheese. Place in a baking dish, dot the top with

butter, and bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is set. Serve with

or without sauce, as desired.

51. CHEESE FONDUE.--A dish that is very similar to cheese souffle and

that must be served as soon as it comes from the oven in order to avoid

shrinking is cheese fondue. It satisfactorily takes the place of meat in

a light meal, and may be served from a large dish or from individual

baking dishes with or without sauce, as desired.

CHEESE FONDUE

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 1/2 c. soft bread crumbs

1 1/2 c. grated cheese

1 c. hot milk

4 eggs

1/2 tsp. salt

Mix the bread crumbs and cheese, and add them to the hot milk, beaten

egg yolks, and salt. Fold in the stiffly beaten egg whites. Bake in a

buttered baking dish for about 30 minutes in a moderate oven. Serve

at once.

52. CHEESE DREAMS.--If something delicious to serve with fruit or salad

is desired for luncheon or Sunday night supper, the accompanying recipe

for cheese dreams should be tried. They should be served at once on

being taken from the stove, because as soon as they cool the cheese

hardens and they are not appetizing. Cheese dreams may be sauted or

prepared in a broiler or an oven, but if they are sauted, they may be

made in a chafing dish.

CHEESE DREAMS

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

12 thinly cut slices of bread

Butter

Cheese sliced 1/8 in. thick

Spread the bread thinly with butter and make sandwiches by placing a

slice of cheese between two slices of bread. Place these sandwiches

under a broiler or in a very hot oven and toast them on both sides, or

omit the butter from the center, place the sandwiches in a slightly

oiled frying pan, and brown them on both sides. In heating the

sandwiches, the cheese melts. Serve hot.

53. CHEESE WAFERS.--If made daintily, cheese wafers may be served with

salad or with tea for afternoon tea. The wafers selected for this

purpose should be small and the layer of cheese not very thick. If a

very thin broth is served at the beginning of a meal, cheese wafers may

accompany it, but they should never be served with a heavy soup.

CHEESE WAFERS

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 doz. wafers

Butter

3/4 grated cheese

Paprika

Spread the wafers thinly with butter and sprinkle each with 1

tablespoonful of grated cheese and a pinch of paprika. Bake in a hot

oven until the cheese is melted. Cool and serve.

54. CHEESE STRAWS.--Nothing can be more delightful to serve with a

vegetable salad than cheese straws. An attractive way to serve them is

to slip them through small rings made out of strips of the dough

mixture and baked at the same time the straws are baked and then place

them at the side of the salad plate. They may accompany a fruit salad,

as well as a vegetable salad, but they are not appropriate for serving

with a meat or a fish salad.

CHEESE STRAWS

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 Tb. butter

2/3 c. flour

1 c. bread crumbs

1 c. grated or cut cheese

1/2 tsp. salt

1/4 tsp. pepper

Pinch of Cayenne pepper

1/2 c. milk

Cream the butter and to it add the flour, bread crumbs, cheese, and

seasonings. Mix thoroughly and add the milk. Roll 1/4 inch thick and

then cut 1/4 inch wide and 6 inches long. Bake until brown in a

moderately hot oven.

55. TOMATOES WITH CHEESE STUFFING.--The addition of cheese to the

stuffing used in stuffed tomatoes means added flavor, as well as

nutritive value in the form of protein, the food substance in which the

tomatoes themselves are lacking. The bread crumbs used for the stuffing

supply a large amount of carbohydrate, so that the completed dish,

besides being a very attractive one, contains all the food principles in

fairly large quantities. Stuffed tomatoes may be served as the main dish

in a light meal or as a vegetable dish in a heavy meal.

TOMATOES WITH CHEESE STUFFING

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

6 tomatoes

1 c. bread crumbs

1 c. grated cheese

1/2 tsp. salt

1/8 tsp. pepper

2 Tb. butter

1/4 c. hot water

Select medium-sized tomatoes and hollow out the centers. Mix the crumbs,

cheese, salt, pepper, butter, and hot water with the pulp from the

centers of the tomatoes. Fill the tomatoes with this stuffing, place in

a pan, and bake in a moderate oven until the tomato can be pierced

easily with a fork. Serve hot.

56. FIGS STUFFED WITH CHEESE.--As cheese is a very concentrated food, it

is often combined with another food to offset this effect. An excellent

combination is formed by stuffing figs with cheese. Figs prepared in

this way will be found to be very attractive and tasty and may be served

in the place of a dessert or a salad, depending on the kind and size of

the meal with which they are used.

FIGS STUFFED WITH CHEESE

(Sufficient to Serve Eight)

1 pkg. Neufchatel or cream cheese

2 Tb. cream

8 small pulled figs

Work the cheese and cream until soft. Steam the figs for 10 or 15

minutes or until they are soft; then cool them, cut out their stems,

fill their centers with the soft cheese, and serve.

57. CHEESE SANDWICHES.--Very appetizing sandwiches that may be used to

take the place of meat sandwiches or a protein dish at any time are made

with a cheese filling. If these are made very small and dainty, they may

be served with salad in a light meal. The addition of pickles, olives,

and pimiento, which are included in the accompanying recipe, makes the

filling more attractive than the usual plain cheese by producing in it a

variety of tastes. They also add bulk, which is lacking in both the

white bread and the cheese. If desired, graham or whole-wheat bread may

be used in place of white bread.

CHEESE SANDWICHES

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1/4 lb. cheese

2 medium-sized pickles

1/2 pimiento

Meat from 1/2 doz. olives

1/4 tsp. salt

1/4 tsp. paprika

Bread

Put the cheese, pickles, pimiento, and olives through a food chopper,

and when chopped add the salt and the paprika. If the mixture is not

moist enough to spread, add salad dressing or vinegar until it is of the

right consistency. Mix well and spread on thinly cut, buttered slices

of bread.

LUNCHEON MENU

58. Many of the dishes for which recipes are given in this Section,

particularly those including cheese as one of the ingredients, do very

well for the main dish in a light meal, such as luncheon. In order that

practice may be had in preparing a well-balanced luncheon that includes

a dish of this kind, a luncheon menu is here presented. The cheese

souffle, which has been selected as the main dish in this menu, should

be made according to the directions already given. Little difficulty

will be experienced in making the other dishes, as recipes for them are

given immediately after the menu. All the recipes are intended for six

persons, so that if more or fewer are to be served, the recipes should

be changed accordingly. This menu is presented with the intention that

it be tried by each student and a report of it then prepared according

to the plan outlined and sent with the work of the Examination

Questions.

MENU

Cream-of-Corn Soup

Cheese Souffle

Stewed Tomatoes

Sauted Potatoes

Brown Bread and Butter

Baked Apples

Black Tea

RECIPES

CREAM-OF-CORN SOUP

1 Tb. flour

1 Tb. butter

1 pt. milk

1 c. canned corn

1 tsp. salt

1/8 tsp. pepper

Make a white sauce of the flour, butter, and milk. Force the corn

through a colander or sieve and add the puree to the white sauce. Season

with the salt and pepper and serve.

SAUTED POTATOES

6 medium-sized cooked potatoes

2 Tb. butter

1-1/2 tsp.

salt 1/4 tsp.

pepper

Slice the boiled potatoes thin and put the slices in a frying pan in

which the butter has been melted. Add the salt and pepper. Allow the

potatoes to cook until well browned, turning frequently during the

cooking. Serve hot.

STEWED TOMATOES

1 Tb. butter

1 small onion

6 medium-sized ripe tomatoes or 1 can of tomatoes

1 tsp. salt

2 Tb. sugar

1/4 tsp. pepper

1 Tb. flour

Brown the butter in a saucepan, slice the onion into it, and cook for a

few minutes. Add the tomatoes. If fresh tomatoes are to be used, remove

the skins, cut into pieces, put into the saucepan with a few

tablespoonfuls of water, and cook until the tomatoes are thoroughly

softened. If canned tomatoes are to be used, merely allow them to come

to the boiling point. Add the salt, sugar, and pepper, and, a few

minutes before removing from the fire, moisten the flour with a

tablespoonful of cold water and stir into the tomato. Cook for a few

minutes and serve.

BAKED APPLES

6 medium-sized apples

1 lemon

3/4 c. sugar

1/2 c. water

Wipe and core the apples. Put them into a baking dish and place a slice

of lemon on the top of each. Make a sirup of the sugar and the water,

pour this around the apples, and bake slowly until they can be pierced

easily with a fork. Serve hot or cold, with a teaspoonful of jelly on

the top of each apple.

BLACK TEA

6 tsp. black tea

6 c. boiling water

Scald out the pot with freshly boiling water, pour in the tea, add the 6

cupfuls of freshly boiling water, and allow it to stand on the leaves

until the tea is strong enough to serve. Then either pour the tea off

the leaves and keep it hot or serve at once.

MILK, BUTTER, AND CHEESE (PART 2)

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) From what part of milk is butter made?

(2) What food substances does butter contain?

(3) Tell how to select good butter.

(4) After butter is purchased, what care should be given to it?

(5) (a) How does cooking affect butter? (b) How can economy be

exercised in the use of butter in cooking?

(6) How may rancid butter be made fit for use in cooking?

(7) Explain the advantages of butter substitutes.

(8) Give the test for distinguishing oleomargarine and renovated butter

from butter.

(9) Explain briefly the way in which cheese is produced.

(10) What food substances are found in cheese?

(11) Why can cheese be used to take the place of meat?

(12) Tell the advantages that cheese has over meat.

(13) Explain how to make cottage cheese from sour milk.

(14) Why should cheese be mixed with other foods instead of being served

alone?

(15) Explain the effect of cooking on cheese.

REPORT ON MENU

After trying out the luncheon menu given in the text, send with your

answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making

out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its

condition by means of the terms specified in the following list:

Cream-of-Corn Soup: too thick? too thin? lumpy? well seasoned? milk

curdled?

Cheese Souffle: light? heavy? baked sufficiently? shrunken? underdone?

Hash-Browned Potatoes: too brown? not brown enough? well seasoned? too

much fat? too little fat?

Stewed Tomatoes: sufficiently cooked? well seasoned? too sour?

Baked Apples: well done? not well done? too brown? too dry? too moist?

sufficient sugar?

Black Tea: too weak? too strong? hot? taste of tannin?

* * * * *

EGGS

* * * * *

VALUE OF EGGS AS FOOD

DESCRIPTION OF EGGS AND PLACE IN THE DIET

1. Eggs are of great importance in the diet, and to appreciate this fact

fully the true nature of this food must be understood. For domestic use,

the eggs of guinea hens, turkeys, ducks, and geese occasionally find

favor, but as eggs laid by hens are the kind that is commonly used, it

is to such eggs that this Section is devoted. A hen's egg may really be

considered as an undeveloped chicken, because it contains all the

elements required to build the body of the chick and provide it with the

energy it needs to pick its way into the world. When it emerges from the

shell, it is fully developed, and in a short time it begins an

independent existence, seeking and finding its own food. The fact that

eggs store so much nutritive material explains to some extent why they

are a valuable source of food for man and why they are used so

extensively. However, as in the case of milk, the elements that eggs

contain are not in just the right proportion for the sole nourishment of

a human being, so they must generally be used in combination with

other foods.

2. Most persons are familiar with the appearance of eggs, but in order

that satisfactory results may be obtained in their selection, care, and

cooking, it will be necessary to look into the details of their

composition. As is well known, an egg consists of a porous shell lined

with a fine, but tough, membrane that encloses the white and the yolk

and serves to protect them. The yolk is divided from the white by a

delicate membrane, which permits it to be separated from the white when

an egg is carefully broken. This membrane extends to each end of the

shell in the form of a small cord, and it is so fastened to the shell as

to hold the yolk evenly suspended. The porous nature of an egg shell is

required to give air to the developing chick, but it is this

characteristic that permits eggs to spoil as they grow old and are

exposed to air, for through these minute pores, or openings, the water

in the egg evaporates and air and bacteria enter. Of course, as the

water evaporates and is replaced by air, the egg becomes lighter.

Because of this fact, the freshness of eggs can be determined by placing

them in water. When they are fresh, they will sink in cold water, but as

they decompose they become lighter and will float.

Since it is known that the spoiling of eggs is due to the entrance of

air through the porous shell, it may be inferred that their decay may be

prevented either by protecting the shell so that air cannot enter or by

keeping the eggs at so low a temperature that bacteria cannot grow.

Although stored eggs always deteriorate more or less, both of these

methods of preservation have proved very satisfactory, the former being

used largely in the home and the latter finding its solution in cold

storage. A knowledge of how eggs can be preserved, however, is of great

value, for if there were no means of preservation and eventual

marketing, the price of eggs would at times rise to actual

prohibitive limits.

3. That eggs as an article of food are growing in importance is

indicated by the fact that their production has come to be a large and

widely distributed industry. Owing to the private consumption and sale

of eggs, an accurate statement of the number of eggs produced is

difficult to give. Still, in a report, the United States Bureau of

Agriculture estimated the value of the yearly egg production at

something more than three million dollars, with an allowance of about

210 eggs, or 17-1/2 dozen, per capita each year, or 4 eggs a week for

each person. These figures, however, are only suggestive of the

production, use, and value of eggs, for as the population increases so

does the use of eggs. In fact, they are proving to be almost

indispensable to the cook, the baker, the manufacturers of certain

foods, and many others.

4. With the increase in the demand for eggs has come a corresponding

steady advance in the money value of this product and, consequently, an

increase in its price. The housewife who would practice economy in

cookery can readily see, therefore, that with reference to the number of

eggs required and the ways in which they are used, she must choose

carefully the recipes and methods she employs. If the eggs are always

considered a part of a meal, their use is seldom an extravagance, even

at such high prices as they sometimes attain. On the other hand, if a

dessert that requires the use of many eggs is added to a meal that is

itself sufficient in food value, it is not unreasonable to regard such

use of eggs as an extravagance. A point that should be taken into

consideration in the use of eggs in the diet, especially when their

price seems very high, is that there is no waste matter in them, unless

the shell is regarded as waste. Therefore, they are often more

economical than other foods that can be bought for less money.

It must not be understood, however, that eggs are used only as an

article of diet. They are also a very important food ingredient, being

employed in the preparation of many kinds of dishes. For instance, they

are often used to thicken custards, sauces, etc.; to clarify soups and

jellies; to lighten cakes, puddings, hot breads, and other baked

mixtures; to form the basis for salad dressings; and to combine or hold

together many varieties of food.

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF EGGS

5. Like milk, eggs are often spoken of as a perfect food. Still, as has

been pointed out, they are not a perfect food for man, but they are of

especial nutritive value and should be used freely in the diet just as

long as their cost neither limits nor prohibits their use. An idea of

how they compare with other nutritious foods can be obtained from Fig.

1, which shows that eight eggs are equal in food value to 1 quart of

milk or 1 pound and 5 ounces of beefsteak. A better understanding of

their food value, however, can be gained from a study of their

composition.

6. Since an egg is an undeveloped chick that requires only the addition

of warmth to develop it into a living, moving creature made of muscles,

bones, and blood, it is evident that this food contains considerable

tissue-building and energy-producing material. The exact proportion of

this material, as well as the other substances found in eggs, is given

in the food chart shown in Essentials of Cookery, Part 1. The chart

relating to the composition of eggs points out that the edible portion

of the whole egg consists of 73.7 per cent. of water, 14.8 per cent. of

protein, 10.5 per cent. of fat, and about 1 per cent. of ash, or mineral

matter. The protein, which is chiefly in the form of albumen, and the

fat are the most digestible of these elements, while the mineral

constituents are as valuable for the growing child as for the chick.

When the total weight of an egg is taken into consideration, the shell

constitutes about 11 per cent., the yolk 32 per cent., and the white 57

per cent. The composition of the yolk and the white differs somewhat,

the yolk having the greater food value, a fact that is also clearly

indicated in the chart. The white contains a larger proportion of water

than the yolk, but the yolk contains the most of the fat and more

protein and mineral matter, or ash, than the white. In addition, the

chart shows that the number of calories to the pound of whole egg is

700, of egg yolk is 1,608, and of egg white is 265.

7. PROTEIN IN EGGS.--The nature of the food substances in eggs is of

nearly as great importance as their amount, for they not only determine

the value of this food in the body, but influence its cooking. That

protein is present in both the yolk and the white is apparent from the

fact that they coagulate when heat is applied. Because eggs are high in

protein, containing 14.8 per cent. of this substance, they may be

regarded as equivalent to a meat dish, and it is only when they are

extremely high in price that they cannot be frequently substituted for

meat to advantage. They are often used to take the place of milk, too,

for eggs and milk are more alike in nutritive value than any other two

protein foods; but, of the two, milk yields the cheaper form of protein.

Like meat and milk, eggs are rich in all those food materials which

enter into the construction of bone, muscle, and blood.

8. FAT IN EGGS.--A study of the food chart previously mentioned will

show that eggs contain proportionately almost as much fat as protein and

that nearly all this fat is found in the yolk. Since fat produces more

heat or energy, weight for weight, than any other food substance, and

since eggs contain neither starch nor sugar, it is evident that the fat

of this food is the main source of the energy-producing material. Fat in

eggs occurs in the form of an emulsion, or tiny particles, and, like the

fat of milk, is very readily digested. It is for this reason that both

of these foods are particularly well adapted to the diet of both

children and adults. The presence of quantities of protein and fat and

the absence of carbohydrate in eggs indicate that the proper thing to

combine with this food, in order to have a well-balanced meal when eggs

are eaten, is carbohydrate in some form.

9. MINERALS IN EGGS.--Eggs are especially valuable for the mineral salts

they contain, chief among which are lime, phosphorus, sulphur, iron,

potassium, and sodium. For this reason, the addition of eggs to any kind

of diet supplies a large amount of the minerals that are needed for

bone, blood, and tissue building. A favorable point concerning the

minerals found in eggs is that they are not affected to any extent by

cooking. Therefore, in the preparation of any dish, if eggs are added to

other foods, that dish will contain an additional amount of mineral

salts, plus the nutritive value of the eggs.

10. DIGESTIBILITY OF EGGS.--In connection with the discussion of the

food substances of which eggs are composed, it will be well to note how

these affect the digestibility of this food. But just what is meant by

this characteristic with reference to eggs must first be understood. In

some foods, digestibility may mean the length of time required for them

to digest; in others, the completeness of the digestion; and in still

others, the ease and comfort with which the process of digestion

proceeds. In the case of eggs, digestibility refers to the quantity of

this food that is absorbed, that is, actually dissolved and permitted to

enter the blood stream. The nutritive value of eggs is not so high as

would naturally be supposed, for, although the protein, fat, and mineral

salts of an egg make up about one-fourth of its contents, one egg equals

in nutritive value only 1/2 cupful of milk, a small potato, or a

medium-sized apple. However, when the proportion of the nutritive

material that the body retains from this food, or its digestibility, is

considered, eggs rank extremely high, it having been determined by

experiments that 97 per cent. of the protein and 95 per cent. of the fat

are assimilated. A point worthy of note in this connection, though, is

that eggs contain no cellulose, such as that found in grains,

vegetables, and fruits. Therefore, in order to add the much-needed bulk

to the diet, foods that do contain cellulose should be served with eggs.

11. Whether or not the cooking of eggs has any effect on their

digestibility is a matter that has also been investigated. The results

of the experiments made indicate that cooking makes some difference with

the rate of digestion, but very little with its thoroughness. So far as

the rapidity of digestion is concerned, there is very little difference

between raw eggs and slightly cooked eggs; but hard-cooked eggs,

although they may be digested as completely as soft-cooked ones, require

longer time for the accomplishment of the process. This is due to the

fact that the whites of hard-cooked eggs are so firm in texture that,

unless they are finely chopped or thoroughly masticated, the digestive

juices are not able to act on them quickly. As a result, portions of

them may escape digestion or remain in the digestive tract for some time

and decompose. For this reason, hard-cooked eggs are usually excluded

from the diet of children and invalids, and even healthy adults should

be careful to masticate them thoroughly.

SELECTION OF EGGS

12. On first thought it would seem as if there is very little to guide

the housewife in the selection of eggs, it being extremely difficult to

tell from their external appearance whether or not they are fresh or

stale. As a rule, she must trust largely to the honesty of the person

from whom she buys eggs. Still she need not depend entirely on the

dealer's word, for, at least to a certain extent, there are ways in

which she may judge the quality of eggs. Because of the great value of

eggs as a food and for cooking purposes, it is important that the

housewife make use of all available information on this matter and, in

addition, become familiar with the trade practices in the egg industry.

13. MARKETING OF EGGS.--As is generally known, hens lay a large number

of eggs in the spring of the year, but they do not lay readily in the

cold winter months; and not alone are the greatest quantities of eggs

produced in April and May, but those laid at this time are of the best

quality. Because of this condition and in order that the demand during

the time of scarcity may be supplied, it is necessary that a

considerable number of eggs be preserved when they are comparatively

cheap and abundant. Also, in the preserving of eggs for future use, it

is of the greatest importance that they be kept in the best possible

condition and manner, so that when they are used, months after they are

laid, they may be as good as it is possible to have them.

The advance made in storage and transportation methods in recent years

has done much toward making the egg supply uniform all the year around.

Not long ago, because of inadequate means of storage and shipping, eggs

were sold only a short distance from the place where they were produced.

However, with the coming of cold storage and improved methods of

shipping, eggs have been changed from a perishable and more or less

seasonable food to a staple one. Now it is possible to collect them in

large quantities, to keep them for a considerable time before selling

them, and to ship them long distances. To safeguard the public, though,

authorities have set a time limit for the storage of eggs, the legal

time they may be kept being 8 months. By this is meant that eggs placed

in the warehouse in May must be released or sold in December; whereas,

those stored in June must be released no later than January.

14. Eggs that have been kept too long in storage are characterized by a

musty odor and flavor, the breaking of the yolk and its mixing with the

white, and a watery condition of the white. Such eggs, of course, cannot

be sold legally. Those which may be placed on the market are graded

according to their freshness, cleanliness, size, cracks, and color. With

the exception of their freshness, these points can be readily told from

the appearance of the eggs; but, in order to determine whether an egg is

fresh or not, it is generally put through a process known as candling,

by which the interior condition of the egg can be ascertained.

In the grading of eggs, all those of the best size, color, and condition

are sold under a particular trade name and bring a high or a low price,

according to the grading. Others that are not so perfect are put in

another grade and sell for prices that vary according to the demand.

Eggs, of course, differ in appearance and in many cases they are sorted

in order to satisfy the demand. For instance, in some localities, eggs

having a brown shell sell for the highest price, while in other places,

eggs having a white shell are in the greatest demand and bring the

highest price. Unsorted eggs are not held in much favor and do not

bring so good a price as those which are all one color. Many persons

have an idea that the color of the shell of an egg bears some relation

to its nutritive value and flavor. However, authorities on foods agree

that, other things being alike, the edible portion of white-shelled eggs

has essentially the same composition and nutritive value as that of

dark-shelled eggs.

15. QUALITY OF EGGS.--The natural quality of eggs depends largely on the

food of the hens and their conditions of living. Because of this fact,

the selection, breeding, and care of fowls have developed into a

science, particularly since the production of eggs has grown into an

industry. When the quality itself is to be determined, all the

characteristics of eggs must be taken into consideration; still there is

one particular point on which the quality of eggs depends, and that is

their freshness. Various agencies, however, are constantly at work to

render this quality inferior. Chief among these are the molds and

bacteria that pass through the porous shells of eggs that have been

improperly cared for or have become contaminated by being allowed to

remain in unclean surroundings. Such bacteria are responsible for the

unpleasant flavors that are found in bad eggs. Because of their harmful

effect, every effort should be made to prevent the entrance of the germs

that cause decay, and, as has been stated, the best way in which to

accomplish this is to protect the shell. If it is found that bacteria

have entered, the eggs will become unfit for use quickly unless their

growth is prevented. This may be done by storing the eggs at a

temperature that will keep the bacteria dormant, or inert.

16. If the eggs are kept under the proper conditions, they will not

actually spoil for a long time; but it is seldom that they are not more

or less affected by storage of any kind that covers a period of several

months. One change that can always be looked for in such eggs is in the

air space at the broad end. When an egg is first laid, this air space is

small, but since the water contained in the egg slowly evaporates

through the porous shell it increases in size as the egg grows staler.

For this reason, the freshness of an egg can often be determined by the

size of this air space.

In addition, the purposes for which eggs are used are somewhat affected

by their storage. A stale egg, although it may not be actually spoiled

to the extent that it cannot be used as food, will not produce such good

results in a cooking process as a fresh egg, especially if it is used

for leavening. In fact, it is impossible to produce the desired results

with eggs that have undergone a certain amount of change, even though

their odor and their flavor do not indicate that they are spoiled.

17. JUDGING THE QUALITY OF EGGS IN THE MARKET.--While, as has been

mentioned, the housewife must depend considerably on the dealer's word

as to the freshness of the eggs she purchases, it will be well for her

to be familiar with the trade names of eggs and their meaning. The names

used differ, of course, in various localities, but all large

distributors grade and name eggs in much the same way. In deciding on

the grade to which eggs belong, a certain number of points are given for

color, size, freshness, and appearance, and the sum total of these

points determines the grade, a special name being given for each grade.

For instance, eggs that can be graded 90 are called extra fancy; those

which receive a grade of 80, fancy; those which are graded 70,

strictly fresh; and those which can be graded only 60, cooking eggs.

When eggs are put on the market under such names, it can be expected

that the quality will correspond to the grade and the price will vary

with the grade. Therefore, the trade name and the price are two of the

principal ways in which the quality of eggs in the market may be judged.

18. Another way of judging the quality of eggs consists in observing the

condition of the surface of the shell. When eggs are freshly laid, the

shell is covered with a substance, called bloom, that gives it a

feeling much like that of a thin lime coating deposited in a pan after

water boils. This coating disappears gradually as the egg is exposed to

the air, but as long as it remains, the egg may be considered as fresh

and germ-proof. While this way of determining freshness is probably the

quickest, it is possible that the quality of some eggs from which the

bloom has recently disappeared has not been injured.

19. When eggs are selected in the market, certain points in their

appearance should also be noted. If eggs of the best quality are

desired, medium-sized ones that are uniform in size and color should be

selected. With regard to shape, they should have a comparatively long

oval shell, one end of which is blunt and the other, a sharp curve.

20. JUDGING THE QUALITY OF EGGS IN THE HOME.--After eggs have been

received in the home, several simple tests for determining their

freshness can be applied in addition to the ones already mentioned. A

rather indefinite test, but one that is sometimes applied to determine

the freshness of an egg, is to shake it. When the water inside the shell

evaporates, the yolk and white shrink so much that they can be felt

moving from side to side when the egg is shaken. The staler the egg, the

more pronounced does the movement become. This method should be applied

only immediately before the egg is to be used, as the thin membrane

between the yolk and the white and the spiral cords that hold up the

yolk are liable to be disturbed by the shaking. If they are broken, the

yolk will settle and finally adhere to the shell in case the egg is

stored for any length of time after that.

21. If nothing has been done to preserve eggs, the simple test for

freshness which consists in placing the eggs in a glass containing

water, will be found effective. A perfectly fresh egg will sink when it

is put into the water, but if the egg is 3 weeks old the broad end will

rise slightly from the bottom of the glass. An egg that is 3 months old

will sink into water until only a slight portion of the shell remains

exposed; whereas, if the egg is older or stale, it will rise in the

water until nearly half of it is exposed.

22. The test known as candling, which is usually applied to eggs before

they are put on the market, can also be practiced by the housewife in

the home. This method of determining the freshness of eggs consists in

placing a piece of cardboard containing a hole a little smaller than an

egg between the eye and a light, which may be from a lamp, a gas jet,

or an electric light, and holding the egg in front of the light. The

rays of light passing through the egg show the condition of the egg,

the size of its air space, and the growth of mold or the spoiling of

the egg by any ordinary means.

When an egg is fresh, the yolk will be barely distinguishable from the

white except as a slightly darker area in the center of the egg, and

the entire egg will appear clear and bright and free from spots. In an

egg that is a little older, candling will reveal a slightly darker

yolk, a cloudy white, and a larger air space, In a watery egg, or one

that is beginning to spoil, various dark spots and blotches usually

develop. When an egg is rotten, the contents of the shell will look

dark in candling and the yolk will appear to be mixed with the white.

23. If the housewife does not wish to resort to candling, she may

determine the condition of an egg by breaking it into a saucer and

examining it carefully. If the egg is newly laid, no odor will be

detected and the white will be clear, elastic, and rather thick;

also, where it joins the yolk it will be almost solid. The yolk of such

an egg will have an even yellow color, without lighter or darker spots

and will stand up well from the surface of the white. Sometimes a small

spot of blood may be detected on the yolk of a perfectly fresh egg,

but, while this is not pleasant to look at, it does not affect the

quality of the egg. When an egg that is not real fresh is broken into a

saucer, the yolk will lie flat. In an egg that is quite stale, the

membrane surrounding the yolk is easily destroyed, so that even when

such an egg is broken carefully the yolk and the white are likely to

run together.

* * * * *

PRESERVATION OF EGGS

CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DETERIORATION

24. As has been implied in the discussion given thus far, eggs will

deteriorate or spoil in a comparatively short time unless something is

done to preserve them. In view of the eggs she keeps on hand at home, as

well as those she buys, the causes of spoiling and the ways in which to

prevent spoiling are matters with which the housewife should be

familiar, particularly if she would secure for her family eggs of the

best quality at prices that are not beyond her means. The spoiling of

eggs is due to decomposition, which is caused by molds or bacteria that

result from accidental causes, and, in fertile eggs, to the germination

and development of the chick, which is a natural process. The loss of

quality resulting from molds and bacteria in the egg is brought about by

their growth and by the formation of chemical compounds, which give

spoiled eggs their peculiar appearance, taste, and odor. Some of these

molds are not injurious to health, while others may give rise to more or

less serious illness.

25. Various methods have been devised whereby their rapid deterioration

may be prevented, and a knowledge of these is important to those who

have occasion to purchase eggs or to keep them over from the season of

plenty to the season of scarcity. The method followed to prevent losses

due to the development of the embryo consists in the production of

infertile eggs--that is, eggs that are non-productive. This is a point

that is as well worth remembering in the home production of eggs as it

is in professional poultry raising. The method employed to prevent the

infection of eggs by molds and bacteria is to keep them clean and dry

from the time they are laid until they are finally used.

26. While the preservation of eggs is carried on to a greater extent at

present than formerly, the idea is neither new nor original; indeed, it

has been practiced for many years by the people of some foreign

countries. For instance, in some sections of China, duck eggs are

preserved by covering them with a layer of mud, and such eggs are often

kept for a year or more before they are eaten. However, eggs stored in

this way decompose and their odor and flavor disappear before they are

used, so that they must usually be hard boiled before they can be eaten.

Egg preservation such as is practiced in the United States is the

opposite of this and attempts to prevent not only ripening processes and

put refactive changes but any bacterial or other changes that lessen the

original quality. It will be well to note, however, that eggs preserved

for any length of time deteriorate to some extent and cannot be expected

to be equally as good as fresh eggs.

COMMERCIAL PRESERVATION OF EGGS

27. The usual market method of preserving eggs is by cold storage, an

industry that has developed to vast proportions in recent years. The

success of this method depends on the fact that germs causing

decomposition will not live in a low temperature. While the plan of

storing eggs is responsible for their high price at certain times, it is

also a means of supplying eggs to many persons who would otherwise not

be able to obtain them. The greatest point in favor of this plan,

however, is that it makes possible the marketing of quantities of eggs

during the winter season of scarcity at a price that, although somewhat

high at times, is much more moderate than it would be if it were not

possible to store eggs in large quantities.

28. In order that advantage may be taken of favorable climatic

conditions, eggs are commonly purchased for storage as early in the year

as they are abundant. They are selected with great care, only those

which are clean, sound, and fresh being used. These eggs are packed in

clean cases, and then placed in warehouses where they are kept at a

temperature just above freezing, or one that ranges from 32 to 40

degrees Fahrenheit. In such storage, precaution is usually taken to

prevent the eggs from freezing, for while freezing does not necessarily

injure them for immediate use it breaks the shell because of the

contraction that occurs. While the eggs are in storage, they are also

protected as far as possible from air circulation, as this increases

evaporation and causes the contents of eggs to shrink. To prevent the

yolks from settling to one side, and finally adhering to the shell, the

eggs are turned frequently. The usual limits of storage are from 6 to 9

months, but eggs are not generally allowed to remain in storage more

than 8 months. When taken out at the end of that time, it will be found

that they have deteriorated very little, and while they cannot compete

with the better grades of fresh eggs, they are as desirable as most of

the eggs that can be purchased in the early fall when eggs are not

plentiful.

29. Sometimes eggs are removed from the shells, stored for commercial

use in containers of about 50 pounds each, and kept at the freezing

point until they are to be used. Eggs in this form, which may be bought

with the yolks and whites either mixed or separate, find a ready market

in bakeries and restaurants, where large quantities of eggs are

continually used. Such eggs remain good for any length of time while

they are kept frozen, but they must be used immediately after they are

removed from storage.

30. It is not always necessary to keep eggs at a cold temperature in

order to preserve them, for a method that has proved very satisfactory

is to reduce them to the form of powder by drying them. In this form,

the bulk is greatly reduced, 1 pound of the dry material representing 30

to 40 eggs, and in order to prepare them for use in cooking they must be

mixed with water. POWDERED EGGS, or desiccated eggs, as they are

usually called, can be kept for an indefinite length of time without

special care in storage, when they are wholesome and carefully handled.

Tests that have been made show that eggs of this kind give fairly good

results when used in cookery, but they are used principally by bakers,

for they can be obtained more cheaply than fresh eggs, especially when

it is difficult to secure eggs in other forms.

HOME PRESERVATION OF EGGS

31. The housewife who desires to run her household on an economical

basis will not depend entirely on eggs that are commercially stored, but

will take advantage of one of the many methods by which eggs may be

successfully kept in the home. By being prudent in this matter, she will

be prepared to supply her family with this commodity at times when the

market price is high.

As many as twenty household methods have been tried out for the

preserving of eggs, but each one is based on the theory that decay is

hindered when the shell is covered with some substance that renders it

air-tight and prevents evaporation or the entrance of bacteria and mold.

Among the methods that have met with the most success are burying eggs

in oats, bran, or salt; rubbing them with fat; dipping them in melted

paraffin; covering them with varnish or shellac; and putting them down

in lime water or in a solution of water glass.

No matter which of these methods is adopted, however, it will be well to

note that only eggs laid in April, May, or June should be used for

storage purposes, as these are the best ones laid during the year; also,

that the eggs should always be packed with the small end down, because

the yolk will not settle toward the small end so readily as toward the

large end or the side.

32. Of these various ways of preserving eggs in the home, probably the

oldest method is that of packing the eggs in oats, bran, or salt. This

method is fairly effective, but the eggs preserved by it do not keep so

long as eggs preserved by other methods, nor is their quality so good.

Preserving eggs by completely covering the shells with fat, vaseline,

paraffin, varnish, or other substance that will exclude the air but not

impart flavor to the eggs, proves a more satisfactory method so far as

the eggs are concerned, but it requires more time and handling. To

assist in their preservation, eggs are sometimes immersed in boiling

water for 12 to 15 seconds. This process, which causes the white to

harden slightly just inside of the shell, keeps the eggs fairly well,

but it is rather difficult to accomplish, as the least overcooking

renders the egg unfit for use as a raw egg.

As a result of many trials, it has been found that putting eggs down in

the various solutions that are used for this purpose is the most

effective way of preserving them under home conditions, provided, of

course, the solutions in which the eggs are immersed do not flavor the

eggs. Therefore, to assist the housewife, detailed directions for using

lime water and water glass for this purpose are here given.

33. PRESERVATION WITH LIMEWATER.--To prepare limewater for the

preservation of eggs, dissolve 1 pound or 1 pint of salt and 1 quart of

finely slaked lime in 3 gallons of water, stir the solution at frequent

intervals for a day or two, and then allow the liquid to settle. Place

the eggs in tall stone crocks or kegs with their pointed ends turned

down, filling the receptacles to within a few inches of the top. Pour

the clear limewater over the eggs so arranged, allowing it to rise an

inch or two above the top layer. Then stand the vessel in a cool place

where the temperature will not exceed 50 degrees Fahrenheit. Eggs so

treated will keep for at least 6 or 8 months. The only objection to this

plan is that the eggs preserved by it sometimes acquire a slight

lime taste.

34. PRESERVATION WITH WATER GLASS.--Putting eggs down in a solution of

water glass is without doubt the most satisfactory method of storing

them in the home. So effective does this method prove that the housewife

who has a convenient and proper storage room should not fail to take

advantage of this way of laying up a supply of eggs.

The commercial form of water glass is usually a mixture of potassium and

sodium silicate, which, besides being cheaper than that which is

chemically pure, is the kind that is preferred for the purpose of

preserving eggs. A good quality of it either in a sirup-like solution or

in the form of a powder retails in drug or grocery stores for about 10

cents a pound. To make a solution of the desired strength to preserve

eggs satisfactorily, dissolve 1 part of water glass in 7 parts of warm

water that has first been boiled to drive off bacteria, mold, spores,

etc. One quart of water glass will make sufficient solution to cover

about 12 dozen eggs. With the solution thoroughly mixed, it is ready to

pour over the eggs.

In selecting eggs for the purpose of storing, be careful to choose only

those which are clean, fresh, and perfectly sound, and, if possible,

infertile. It is advisable not to wash them before they are put into the

preservative, for they will keep better if their bloom is not removed.

Place the eggs in receptacles in the manner explained for preserving

eggs in limewater, and over them pour the water-glass solution until

they are all covered. If the eggs so prepared are stored in a cool

place, they will keep as long as those preserved in limewater; besides,

there will be no danger of their acquiring any foreign flavor.

* * * * *

COOKING OF EGGS

PRELIMINARY PREPARATION

35. The successful preparation of eggs for their use as a food demands

that certain points must be observed by the housewife. For instance, she

must see that the eggs she uses are in the right condition; that the

shells are properly broken for the most convenient removal of the egg;

that the parts of the egg are separated in the right way in case the

whites and the yolks are to be used separately; and that the eggs

receive the right treatment for the purpose for which they are to be

used. Attention to all these points not only will insure the most

satisfactory results, but will enable the housewife to supply her family

with food that is extremely wholesome and nutritious.

36. Exterior Condition of Eggs.--As has been explained, clean eggs are

the most desirable, but it is not advisable to wash eggs that are to be

kept for even a short time, as washing them removes the natural coating

that helps to prevent the entrance of bacteria. However, as it is

necessary that the shells be perfectly clean before they are broken or

before the eggs are cooked, the eggs may be washed or wiped with a damp

cloth immediately before such processes.

37. BREAKING OF EGGS.--In cookery, it is usually desirable to break an

egg shell so that the yolk will not run into the white; that is, so

that these can be kept separate. While there are several methods of

doing this, the housewife should adopt the one that is most convenient

for her. A quick method that is often employed consists in striking the

shell on the edge of the pan or the bowl into which the contents are to

be put. A preferable method, however, is consists in striking one side

of the shell, midway between the ends, a sharp blow with the edge of a

knife. The advantage of this method will be evident after a trial or

two, for it will be found that the depth of the cut made by the knife

can be so gauged that there will be little danger of breaking the

yolk. Besides, fragments of the shell are not likely to fall into the

bowl or the pan with the contents of the egg.

38. SEPARATING OF EGGS.--Frequently recipes require that the yolks and

whites of eggs be beaten separately before being added to the other

ingredients. When this is the case, care must be exercised in taking the

egg from the shell. The method by which this is most easily accomplished

is the shell is first broken as nearly as possible into halves and

then, while the egg is poured from 1/2 of the shell into the other, the

white is dropped into a dish and the yolk is retained in the shell.

During this process, the yolk should remain intact in its delicate

membrane, for if it becomes mixed with the white the lightness of the

white will be injured. To separate the yolk from the white is not

difficult when eggs are fresh, but as they become stale the membrane

surrounding the yolk grows weak and breaks easily. If the yolk breaks

and any of it falls into the white, it must be completely removed

before the white is beaten.

39. BEATING OF EGGS.--Sometimes eggs are cooked in the shell and other

times they are used alone just as they are removed from the shell, as in

the frying and poaching processes; however, when they are to be

combined with other ingredients, they are usually beaten. Eggs are

beaten for the purpose of mixing the yolk and the white or of

incorporating air to act as a leavening agent when the eggs are heated

in the cooking process. Various utensils, such as a fork, an egg whip,

or an egg beater, may be employed for beating eggs, the one to select

depending on the use to which the eggs are to be put. The rotary, or

Dover, egg beater, should be used to beat either whole eggs or

the yolks of eggs when they are to be used in custards, mayonnaise,

cakes, puddings, etc., as it will beat them sufficiently light for such

purposes. However, for the beating of egg whites, use should be made of

a fork or of an egg whip, because the whites must be lifted instead of

stirred for the incorporation of air, and it is only with a utensil of

this kind that this can be accomplished. Then, too, more air can be

incorporated into the whites and the volume of the egg thereby

increased by means of a fork or an egg whip than by an egg beater. An

important point to remember in this connection is that eggs can be

beaten more successfully when they are cold and have had a pinch of

salt added to them.

40. In the beating of eggs, it should be remembered that for some

purposes, as in making some kinds of sponge cake, they are beaten until

nearly frothy, as shown in Fig. 10, when they do not stand up nor cling

to the whip; whereas, for other purposes, as in making meringue, they

are beaten until they are stiff enough to stand up well and to adhere to

the whip. When egg whites are to be beaten stiff, care should be taken

not to continue the beating too long. If this is done, they will

become dry and will break up into small pieces, a condition that will

mean a loss of some of the air that has been incorporated. It is well

also to observe that egg whites should always be beaten in the same

direction and that the same motion should be continued throughout the

beating, for a change of direction or motion always causes a loss of

air. A final precaution to take is never to allow egg whites to stand

after they are beaten. If this is done, the leavening power of the eggs

is reduced, because the air soon escapes from beaten eggs and leaves

underneath them a clear liquid that can never be beaten up. For

instance, eggs that are to be used for boiled icing should not be beaten

until the sirup has finished boiling. However, eggs that have been

separated but not beaten may stand for a couple of hours, provided they

are covered and kept in a cool place.

POINTS TO OBSERVE IN COOKING EGGS

41. As has been previously stated, the substance in eggs that requires

special care in the cooking process is the protein, which occurs in this

food in the form of albumen. Because of this, certain points concerning

the treatment that the albumen requires should be kept in mind. In a raw

egg, the albumen occurs in a semiliquid form, but it coagulates at a

lower temperature than does the yolk, which contains a high percentage

of fat. After coagulation, the consistency of the two parts is very

different. The white is elastic and more or less tough, while the yolk,

upon being thoroughly cooked, becomes powdery, or mealy, and breaks up

into minute particles. The egg white begins to coagulate at 134 degrees

Fahrenheit, and it becomes white and jellylike at 160 degrees. Bringing

an egg to such a temperature produces a more desirable result than

cooking it at a high temperature--boiling point, for instance--because

the albumen, instead of becoming tough, as it does at a high

temperature, acquires a soft, tender consistency that exists throughout

the entire egg. An egg cooked in this way is more digestible and

appetizing than one that is boiled until it becomes hard and tough.

42. The low temperature at which eggs will cook in the shell applies

also to eggs when they are combined with other foods. Sometimes,

however, a mixture in which eggs are one of the ingredients must be

cooked at a high temperature because the materials mixed with them

require it. This difficulty can be overcome when eggs are combined with

starchy foods, such as corn starch, rice, and tapioca, that require long

cooking. In such a case, all the ingredients except the eggs may be

cooked the length of time they require, after which the eggs may be

added so that they will cook just long enough to become coagulated.

Longer cooking is liable to spoil the texture. Often the starchy mixture

retains sufficient heat to set the eggs without further cooking after

they are added.

43. A very nutritious way in which to prepare eggs when they are to be

used for a dessert is to combine them with milk to form a custard,

which, after being sweetened and flavored, is baked. The proportion that

has been accepted as ideal to produce a dessert of the right thickness

is one egg to each cupful of milk; however, an entire egg is not always

required, as one yolk is often sufficient to thicken 1 cupful of milk.

Care should be taken in the cooking of such custards, for if they are

cooked too long or at too high a temperature they will curdle and whey;

whereas, a properly cooked custard--that is, one cooked slowly at a low

temperature and for the required length of time--will have a smooth,

jellylike consistency. A slight variation in a dish of this kind is

secured by reducing the number of eggs and thickening it with corn

starch or some other starchy material. While such a mixture is not a

true custard, it makes an excellent dessert.

44. In the cooking of mixtures containing eggs, no utensil proves quite

so satisfactory as the double boiler, which has already been explained

and illustrated. In fact, it is almost impossible to cook an egg mixture

directly over the flame on account of the difficulty encountered in

preventing the eggs from curdling. The low temperature at which cooking

is possible in the double boiler makes it a comparatively simple matter

to bring a mixture to the proper consistency without the formation of

curds. Still, a certain amount of precaution must be taken even with a

double boiler. If the degree of heat that is reached in this utensil is

applied too long, the result will be no more satisfactory than when

mixtures are exposed directly to the heat and cooked at a high

temperature. While every effort should be made to cook mixtures

containing eggs, such as custards or mayonnaise, so as to prevent curds

from forming, occasionally they will form in spite of all that can be

done. However, it is sometimes possible to remedy the matter by placing

the vessel at once in cold water and beating the mixture rapidly with a

Dover egg beater until the curds disappear. The cold water cools the

mixture and prevents the formation of more curds, and the beating breaks

up those which have already formed, provided they are not too hard.

45. In addition to the uses already mentioned, eggs have numerous other

uses in cooking with which the housewife should be familiar. For

instance, slightly beaten egg is used to a great extent to make crumbs

or meal adhere to the surface of croquettes, meat, oysters, etc. that

are to be sauted or fried in deep fat, a coating of this kind preventing

the food from becoming soaked with grease. In addition, egg is used to

stick flour together for certain kinds of dough, such as noodles. Then,

again, it is much used to puff up mixtures and produce a hollow space in

them, as in popovers and cream puffs. While such mixtures do not require

beating, spongy mixtures, such as omelets and sponge cakes, do. In

these, eggs are an important factor, and they must be thoroughly beaten

in order to incorporate the air in small bubbles and thus produce the

desired texture.

SERVING OF EGGS

46. The manner of serving eggs depends, of course, on the way in which

they are cooked. One point, however, that should never be overlooked, so

far as eggs that are to be served hot is concerned, is that they should

be served immediately upon being prepared, so that they will not have

an opportunity to become cool before being eaten. This applies

particularly to any spongy mixture, such as puff omelet and souffle, as

these dishes shrink upon standing and become less appetizing in both

appearance and texture.

Several ways of serving soft-cooked eggs are in practice, but probably

the most satisfactory way is to serve them in egg cups. In case cups are

used, they should be heated before being placed on the table, as the

heat that they retain helps to keep the eggs warm. The eggs may be

removed from the shell into the cup and eaten from the cup, or the

unbroken egg may be placed point downwards in the small end of the cup,

a small piece broken from the broad end of the shell, and the egg then

eaten from the shell through the opening made in it. If egg cups are not

available, the eggs may be removed from the shell and served in small

dessert dishes, which also should be heated.

Many egg dishes are made more attractive and appetizing by means of a

garnish of some kind. Small strips or triangular pieces of toast, sprays

of parsley, celery leaves, lettuce, and strips of pimiento are very

satisfactory for this purpose. If no other garnish is desired, just a

sprinkling of paprika adds a touch of color.

47. In connection with the serving of eggs it will be well to note that

they have a tendency to adhere to china and to discolor silver.

Therefore, in the washing of china and the cleaning of silver that have

been used in the serving of raw or slightly cooked eggs, much care

should be exercised. Dishes in which eggs of this kind have been served

should first be washed in cool water in order to remove all the egg, and

then they should be thoroughly washed in hot water. If the hot water is

applied first, the heat will cause the egg to coagulate and cling to the

dishes. Silver that comes in contact with eggs tarnishes or becomes

discolored through the action of the sulphur that is found in them, just

as it does when it is exposed to the air. Dark spots that appear on

silver from this source may be removed by means of a good

silver cleaner.

EGG RECIPES

48. To enable the housewife to prepare many of the dishes already

mentioned, as well as many other egg dishes, a number of recipes are

here given. These recipes pertain to the cooking of eggs alone in

various ways or to dishes in which eggs are the leading ingredient.

There are, of course, numerous other dishes in which eggs are required,

such as custards, cakes, mayonnaise, etc., but these are omitted here,

as recipes for them are included in the lessons that pertain directly to

them. In the first few recipes, the ingredients are omitted and merely

directions given, for the eggs themselves are practically the only thing

required, especially so far as the cooking is concerned. However, in the

majority of cases, the ingredients are listed in the usual manner and

explicit directions then given for carrying out the recipe.

49. SOFT-COOKED, OR JELLIED, EGGS.--Eggs that are cooked soft, or

jellied, may be used for any meal in which plain eggs can be served.

When properly prepared, they are both digestible and attractive, and any

person who is able to eat eggs at all can eat them in this form.

To prepare soft-cooked, or jellied, eggs, first bring to the boiling

point sufficient water to cover well the desired number of eggs, which

is usually 1 pint of water to each egg. Then drop the eggs into the

water carefully, remove the pan from the fire, place a cover on it, and

set it on the back of the stove, where the water will not heat further

nor cool too rapidly. Allow the eggs to remain in the water for

5 minutes.

When eggs cooked in this manner are served, they will be found to be the

consistency of jelly all the way through. This method of cooking is

preferable to boiling them for 3, 4, or 5 minutes, because boiling cooks

the white just inside the shell very hard, while the yolk of the egg

remains liquid.

50. POACHED EGGS.--Eggs properly poached make a very attractive

breakfast dish, but the poaching should be well done in order to have

the dish attractive and digestible. The food value of a plain poached

egg is, of course, identically the same as that of a soft-cooked, a

hard-cooked, or a raw egg. Eggs are usually poached in a shallow pan,

although egg poachers are to be had.

To poach eggs in a shallow pan, pour into the pan sufficient water to

cover the eggs that are to be cooked, add a teaspoonful of salt or of

vinegar for each pint of water, and bring it to the boiling point.

Remove the pan from the flame or reduce the heat so that the water will

cease to boil. Break the eggs, one at a time, into a saucer and then

slide them carefully into the water. Do not allow the water to boil

after the eggs have been added, as boiling toughens the egg white and in

addition causes considerable loss by tearing it into shreds. When the

eggs are set, remove them carefully from the water and season them with

salt and pepper. A convenient way to remove the eggs is to use a large

spoon that has holes in the bowl for draining off the water. The salt or

vinegar is added to the water before cooking in order to solidify the

albumen and keep it in a mass.

An egg poacher contains a perforated section of metal just large enough

to hold an egg. In poaching eggs with such a utensil, the perforated

part is placed over a pan of boiling water; then the egg is carefully

slid into it, and allowed to poach. Eggs prepared in this way are really

cooked by steam and are found to be very satisfactory.

51. POACHED EGGS ON TOAST.--Eggs poached according to the directions

just given can be made both appetizing and attractive by serving them on

toast, indeed, the addition of toast to a poached egg adds a quantity

of carbohydrate, a food principle in which the egg is lacking. If the

toast is buttered, fat is added, and such a dish, together with fruit,

makes a very excellent breakfast. A slice of toast of medium size with

the usual amount of butter and egg will have a food value of about 225

calories. In preparing poached eggs on toast, the usual custom is to

butter slices of freshly made toast, moisten them with hot milk or

cream, and place on them freshly poached eggs. The eggs are then

seasoned with salt and pepper, and, if desired, a little piece of

butter may be dropped on each one. To add to the attractiveness of such

a dish, the toast may be cut round with a cookie cutter or a square

piece may be cut diagonally to make two triangular pieces.

52. HARD-COOKED EGGS.--Eggs that are cooked hard may be served hot or

cold, or they may be used in numerous ways, as, for example, to garnish

a dish to which the addition of protein is desirable or to supply a

high-protein dish for some light meal.

To prepare hard-cooked eggs, bring to the boiling point sufficient water

to cover well the desired number of eggs, about 1 pint of water for each

egg to be cooked usually being sufficient. Carefully drop the eggs into

the water and place the pan on the back of the stove where the water

will not boil, but will stay hot. Allow the eggs to remain in the hot

water for 45 minutes; then remove them, and if they are desired hot,

serve them at once. If they are not to be served hot, pour cold water

over them and allow them to cool before removing the shells in order to

prevent the yolks from discoloring.

When prepared in this way, eggs will be found to be tender and at the

same time well cooked; whereas, if they are cooked at the boiling point,

they are certain to be tough and leathery and consequently less

digestible.

53. FRIED EGGS.--Fried eggs are likely to be more or less indigestible,

because the hot fat coagulates the protein and makes it very hard. The

addition of fat, however, increases the food value of the eggs to a

certain extent. To fry eggs, melt enough butter or other fat in a frying

pan to cover its surface well. Break the eggs one at a time into a

saucer and slip them into the hot fat. Season with salt and pepper. Fry

until the white has become well solidified on the bottom, and then

either turn them over or put a few drops of water in the pan and cover

it tight with a cover, so that the steam will cook the top of the egg.

Fry until the desired degree of hardness has been obtained, and

then serve.

54. SCRAMBLED EGGS.--A pleasing variety from the usual methods of

preparation is offered by means of scrambled eggs, which are not

difficult to make. Too long cooking, however, should be guarded against,

for it will cause the protein in the eggs to become too hard and to

separate from the liquid and will produce watery scrambled eggs. To be

most satisfactory, they should be taken from the pan just before they

have finished cooking, for the heat that they hold will complete it.

Eggs prepared in this way, according to the accompanying recipe, may be

served on toast or with ham and bacon. If they are served with meat, a

smaller portion of meat should be given to a person than is

ordinarily served.

SCRAMBLED EGGS

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

6 eggs

3/4 c. milk

1/2 tsp. salt

1/8 tsp. pepper

2 Tb. butter

Beat the eggs slightly, and to them add the milk and seasonings. Melt

the butter in a frying pan and, when the butter is hot, pour the egg

mixture into it. As the eggs begin to thicken, stir them up from the

bottom of the pan and continue to stir them until the entire mass has

thickened slightly. Before the eggs are entirely cooked, remove them

from the pan. Bacon and ham fat may be used instead of butter, and they

are strongly recommended if they can be secured, for they lend an

excellent flavor to scrambled eggs.

55. SCRAMBLED EGGS WITH TOMATO.--The addition of tomato to scrambled

eggs lends an unusual flavor as well as a little variety to the dish.

The same conditions apply to the cooking of scrambled eggs with tomato

as apply to plain scrambled eggs; namely, that too long cooking ruins

them. The onion included in the recipe here given may be omitted from

the dish if it is not desirable. The fat to be used may be in the form

of butter, although bacon or ham fat may be substituted to give an

agreeable flavor.

SCRAMBLED EGGS WITH TOMATO

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

3 Tb. fat

1 slice onion

1 c. stewed tomatoes

1/2 tsp. salt

1/8 tsp. pepper

6 eggs

Put the fat into a frying pan, and when this grease is hot add the slice

of onion and fry it until it is brown. Remove the onion from the fat,

and add the stewed tomatoes, salt, and pepper. Then beat the eggs

slightly and add them to the hot tomato. Stir the mixture slowly from

the bottom of the pan until it is slightly thickened. Remove from the

pan and serve hot.

56. SCRAMBLED EGGS ON TOAST.--The addition of cheese to eggs, as in the

accompanying recipe, makes a dish that is very high in protein and

usually pleasing in flavor. So as not to overcook the eggs in this dish,

they should be cooked only slightly in the pan, because they receive

additional cooking when the dish is placed in the oven to melt the

cheese. Browning the cheese slightly on top makes a very attractive

dish, especially when garnished with parsley.

SCRAMBLED EGGS ON TOAST

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

6 eggs

3/4 c. milk

1/2 tsp. salt

1/8 tsp. pepper

2 Tb. fat

1/2 c. grated cheese

6 slices of toast

Beat the eggs slightly, and to them add the milk, salt, and pepper. Melt

the fat in a frying pan, and when it is hot add the egg mixture. Stir

the mixture as it cooks until it has thickened slightly; then pour it

over the slices of toast placed in a shallow pan. Sprinkle the grated

cheese over the top, and place under a lighted broiler or in a very hot

oven until the cheese melts. Remove to a platter garnish with parsley,

and serve.

57. SCRAMBLED EGGS WITH HAM.--The accompanying recipe affords an

excellent way in which to use up the little scraps of ham that may be

cut from the bone when it is impossible to cut enough nice looking

pieces to serve as a cold dish. Eggs prepared in this way will be found

very tasty and will take the place of a meat dish for luncheon

or supper.

SCRAMBLED EGGS WITH HAM

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

6 eggs

1 c. milk

1/2 tsp. salt

1/8 tsp. pepper

1 c. chopped cooked ham

2 Tb. fat

Beat the eggs slightly, and to them add the milk, salt, pepper, and ham.

Melt the fat in a frying pan and scramble the mixture as directed in

Art. 54 until it is slightly thickened. Remove from the stove and serve

at once. If desired, this dish may be served on toast. Other left-over

meat, such as roast beef or pork, may be used in place of ham, but such

meats do not make so tasty a dish, the flavor of ham in such a

combination being more desirable. 58. PLAIN OMELET.--The simplest type

of omelet, which is known as plain omelet, does not differ materially

from scrambled eggs, except that the whole is collected in a mass in an

omelet shape. No difficulty will be experienced in making such an omelet

if the directions in the recipe here given are followed explicitly. To

make this dish more attractive, some food of a contrasting color, such

as jelly or tomatoes, may be used for garnishing.

PLAIN OMELET

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

6 eggs

6 Tb. water

1/2 tsp. salt

1/8 tsp. pepper

3 Tb. fat

Beat the eggs, and to them add the water, salt, and pepper. Heat the fat

in an omelet pan or a small frying pan, and when it is hot add the egg

mixture. When the egg on the bottom of the pan has thickened, tip the

pan and draw the thickened portion toward the handle with the end of a

knife, allowing the uncooked egg to run over the pan, and when that has

thickened on the bottom, draw it up as before. Repeat until all of the

egg has been cooked and an oblong-shaped omelet is formed. Place on a

hot platter or plate, garnish with parsley or jelly, and serve.

59. PUFF OMELET.--Many housewives consider it to be a very difficult

thing to make a puff omelet successfully; but such need not be the case

if fresh eggs are used and the usual amount of care is taken in its

preparation. The whites of the eggs must not be over-beaten, as too much

beating will cause the loss of air and will not permit the omelet to

become sufficiently light. Another precaution is that the mixture should

not be overcooked, for the application of heat after it has been

sufficiently cooked will cause it to shrink. This is a very pleasing

dish and never fails to appeal to those persons who are fond of eggs.

PUFF OMELET

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 Tb. bread crumbs

4 Tb. milk

4 eggs

1/2 tsp. salt

1/8 tsp. pepper

3 Tb. fat

Soak the bread crumbs in the milk. Separate the yolks and whites of the

eggs. Beat the egg yolks and add them to the crumbs and milk. Add the

salt and pepper. Beat the egg whites until stiff and fold them carefully

into the yolk mixture. Heat the fat in an omelet pan or a frying pan,

and when it is hot pour the mixture into it. Cook over a very slow fire,

being careful not to burn the mixture, until a knife can be slipped

under and the whole mixture raised. By this time the top should be quite

puffed up. Place the pan in a hot oven, where the omelet should puff

still more, and cook until it is no longer raw. With a knife, score

across through the center on a straight line with the handle. Then

carefully fold the omelet double, roll it out on a hot platter or plate,

garnish with parsley, and serve at once. If an omelet of this kind

stands for any length of time after it is served, it will shrink and be

much less appetizing.

60. CHEESE OMELET.--If an additional amount of protein in the form of

casein is desired in an omelet, the accompanying recipe for cheese

omelet should be tried. The addition of cheese makes this dish even a

better meat substitute than either the plain or the puff omelet.

Likewise, the cheese adds flavor, which may be increased if desired by

the addition of more cheese than the recipe calls for. Although this

recipe mentions butter, fat other than butter may be used.

CHEESE OMELET

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1/2 c. grated cheese

2 Tb. bread crumbs

4 Tb. milk

4 eggs

1/2 tsp. salt

1/8 tsp. pepper

3 Tb. butter

Mix the grated cheese with the bread crumbs, milk, egg yolks, salt, and

pepper. Beat the egg whites until they are stiff and fold them into the

other ingredients. To cook the omelet, proceed according to the

directions given for making puff omelet in Art. 59.

61. TOMATO OMELET.--The addition of tomatoes to an omelet makes an

attractive dish as far as color is concerned, and, at the same time, it

gives variety by improving the flavor. Such an omelet is also less

concentrated than a plain omelet, for the tomatoes provide bulk and

additional water is added. While in a way these lower the food value of

the dish, the loss is more than made up by the qualities that are added.

TOMATO OMELET

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

6 eggs

1/2 c. milk

1/2 tsp. salt

1/8 tsp. pepper

3 Tb. fat

2 medium-sized ripe tomatoes

Beat the eggs, and to them add the milk, salt, and pepper. Heat the fat

in a pan large enough to make the egg mixture 1/2 inch deep when poured

into it. Cook slowly until it is well done. Peel and cut the tomatoes

into slices 1/3 inch thick. Place the sliced tomatoes on 1/2 of the

omelet, sprinkle them with salt and pepper, score the omelet through the

center, and fold the other half over the tomatoes. Then slide the omelet

on a hot platter, garnish with lettuce or parsley, and serve at once.

62. VARIETY IN OMELETS.--From the recipes given for omelets, it will be

noted that this dish may be made plain or may be varied by adding

ingredients that provide flavoring or increase the nutritive value. In

addition to the suggestions that have been made in these recipes, there

is an almost endless number of ways in which omelets may be varied. For

instance, left-over bits of any kind of meat, such as a roast, a steak,

or chops, from the day before or bits of bacon fried for a previous meal

may be chopped fine and utilized for this purpose. Cheese cut fine or

grated and mixed with the eggs helps to make a delicious omelet. Bread

crumbs, cracker crumbs, rice, riced potatoes, or left-over cereal may

be used, as well as mushrooms, chopped or whole, and oysters raw or

previously scalloped or fried and then chopped. Bits of fish, such as

left-over crab or lobster, will do nicely for increasing variety. Often

jelly, jam, and fruit or vegetables are folded inside after the omelet

is cooked.

63. STUFFED EGGS.--A highly seasoned cold dish that is delicious for

picnics or cold lunches can be made by removing the yolks from

hard-cooked eggs, seasoning them, and then stuffing them into the

whites, as is explained in the recipe here given. Eggs so prepared also

make a desirable high-protein dish for summer weather when meat dishes

fail to appeal to the appetite. Wafers or tiny bread-and-butter

sandwiches served with stuffed eggs make them more attractive.

STUFFED EGGS

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

6 hard-cooked eggs

1/2 tsp. salt

1/8 tsp. pepper

1/8 tsp. paprika

1/2 tsp. mustard

2 Tb. vinegar

Cut the eggs in half, either lengthwise or crosswise. Remove the yolks,

mash them, add to them the salt, pepper, paprika, mustard, and vinegar,

and mix thoroughly. Fill the egg whites with the yolk mixture. The eggs

will be much more appetizing in appearance if the yolk is not packed

smoothly back into the white but allowed to stand up roughly. The plate

on which the eggs are served should be nicely garnished with lettuce,

parsley, or celery leaves.

64. CREAMED EGGS.--If a dish that will serve well for luncheon or a

light supper is desired, creamed eggs, will be found very satisfactory,

for the cream sauce that is served on them and the toast on which the

eggs are placed add carbohydrate to an otherwise high-protein dish. The

eggs used in this dish must be hard-cooked in water, so as not to be

indigestible. Paprika sprinkled over the top and parsley used as a

garnish add colors that make the dish very attractive.

CREAMED EGGS

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1-1/2 c. milk

2 Tb. fat

2 Tb. flour

1/2 tsp. salt

1/8 tsp. paprika

6 hard-cooked eggs

6 slices of toast

Heat the milk. Put the fat in a saucepan and heat it until it is light

brown; then add the flour, salt, and paprika to the melted fat and mix

all thoroughly. Pour in the hot milk and stir the mixture constantly

until the sauce has become smooth and thick. Cut the hard-cooked eggs

into halves while they are hot, and place two halves with the cut sides

down on each piece of toast. Pour the white sauce over all, sprinkle

with paprika, and serve.

65. Eggs a la Goldenrod.--Closely resembling creamed eggs in composition

and food value, but differing from them somewhat in appearance, are eggs

a la goldenrod, This is, perhaps, even a more attractive dish if it is

nicely made than creamed eggs, and many persons who do not like hardcooked

eggs find this dish agreeable and are able to digest it.

EGGS A LA GOLDENROD

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 c. milk

2 Tb. fat

2 Tb. flour

1/2 tsp. salt

1/8 tsp. pepper

4 hard-cooked eggs

6 slices of toast

Heat the milk. Brown the fat in a saucepan, add the flour, salt, and

pepper, and mix well. Then add the hot milk and stir until the sauce

thickens. Chop the whites of the hard-cooked eggs into small pieces, and

mix them with the white sauce. Arrange the toast on a platter and pour

the sauce over it. Put the hard-cooked egg yolks through a sieve or a

ricer and sprinkle them on top of the white sauce. Serve hot.

66. SCALLOPED EGGS.--A quantity of carbohydrate is added to eggs when

they are scalloped, for the white sauce and the cracker crumbs that are

used in this dish supply this food substance. The cold meat that this

dish requires and that should be well chopped into small pieces may be

left-over from roasted, stewed, or even broiled meat. As this provides

an additional amount of protein, the dish on the whole serves as an

excellent substitute for meat with carbohydrate added.

SCALLOPED EGGS

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 c. milk

2 Tb. fat

1/2 tsp. salt

1/8 tsp. pepper

2 Tb. flour

1 c. cracker crumbs

4 hard-cooked eggs

1 c. chopped cold meat

Heat the milk. Brown the fat in a saucepan, add the salt, pepper, and

flour, and mix well. To this add the hot milk. Cook until the sauce

thickens, stirring constantly. Grease a baking dish and place in it 1/3

cupful of the cracker crumbs. Over the crumbs arrange two of the eggs

sliced thinly, and on the top of the eggs put half of the meat. Repeat

by adding a layer of 1/3 cupful of the crumbs, the remaining eggs

sliced, and the remainder of the meat. Pour the white sauce over all and

arrange the remaining 1/3 cupful of crumbs on top. Bake in a moderate

oven for 1/2 hour. Serve hot from the baking dish.

67. INDIVIDUAL BAKING DISHES FOR EGG RECIPES.--Although the directions

given in the preceding recipe for scalloped eggs state that this recipe

is baked in a baking dish, it is not necessary that one large dish of

this kind be used, for, if desired, individual baking dishes may be

substituted. In fact, any recipe for which a large baking dish would

ordinarily be used may be baked in the small dishes used for a single

serving, and eggs prepared in this way are especially attractive. Such

dishes are also used for the baking of custards or the molding of jelly

and blanc mange. Since they prove very useful and find so much favor,

it is advisable for every housewife to add a few of them to her supply

of utensils and to become familiar with the varieties that can be

secured and the proper way to use them.

Dishes of this kind may be purchased in both cheap and expensive

varieties and in plain or fancy styles, being made of white porcelain,

of glass, or of the brown ware so much used for large baking dishes and

casseroles and having a white glazing on the inside.

68. When such dishes are used as a means of adding variety to the

cooking and serving of eggs, they should be placed in the oven in a

shallow pan containing enough hot water to come nearly to the top of

them. The object of this plan is to keep the temperature uniform. As

long as the dishes are surrounded by water, the food to be cooked will

not attain a greater heat than 212 degrees Fahrenheit, because the

surrounding water cannot reach a higher temperature. Food cooked in this

way will be found to be baked much more evenly and to be of a better

consistency than food that is subjected to the high temperature of the

oven. Most of the recipes that follow, while they can be baked in large

baking dishes if desired and then served from the dish, are designed

particularly to be used in individual baking dishes.

69. BAKED EGGS IN CREAM.--A dish that is particularly desirable for

breakfast, but that may be served for luncheon, is made by baking eggs

in cream according to the accompanying recipe. Besides being very

appetizing, this dish is high in food value because of the addition of

the cream and fat. Crisp toast served with eggs prepared in this way is

very delightful.

BAKED EGGS IN CREAM

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

6 eggs

1 Tb. butter

1/2 tsp. salt

1/4 tsp. pepper

3/4 c. cream

Grease six individual baking dishes and break an egg into each. Put a

small piece of butter on top of each egg and season with salt and

pepper. Pour over each egg two tablespoonfuls of cream. Place the baking

dishes in a shallow pan of hot water and bake until the eggs are as hard

as desired. Serve hot.

70. SHIRRED EGGS WITH HAM.--An excellent way in which to utilize scraps

of ham is to combine them with eggs to make a dish that may be served

in place of meat. This dish, besides being high in food value, is very

tasty because of the flavor of the ham and the fact that it is quite

highly seasoned.

SHIRRED EGGS WITH HAM

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1/2 tsp. prepared mustard

1/4 tsp. pepper

1 c. chopped ham

6 eggs

1/4 tsp. salt

1 Tb. butter

Grease six individual baking dishes. Mix the mustard and pepper with the

ham, and then divide this mixture as evenly as possible into the baking

dishes. Break an egg on top of the ham in each dish, season with salt,

and put a small piece of butter on each. Place the dishes in a shallow

pan of hot water and bake in a moderate oven until the eggs are well set

or hardened. Remove from the oven and serve at once.

71. EGG SOUFFLE.--If a delicate dish for children or invalids is

desired, egg souffle will answer the purpose very well. This dish is

light in character, but it is high in protein and to most persons is

very delightful. It is more attractive if baked in individual baking

dishes, but it may be baked in a large baking dish and served directly

from the dish. To improve the flavor of egg souffle and make it a more

appetizing dish, tomato sauce is often served with it.

EGG SOUFFLE

(Sufficient to Serve Eight)

1 c. milk

2 Tb. fat

2 Tb. flour

1/2 tsp. salt

1 Tb. chopped parsley

4 eggs

Heat the milk. Brown the fat in a saucepan, add to it the flour, salt,

and parsley, and mix well. Pour in the hot milk, stir constantly until

the sauce thickens, and then remove from the fire. Separate the eggs and

add the well-beaten yolks to the sauce, stirring rapidly so that the egg

will not curd. Beat the whites stiff and fold them carefully into the

sauce. Turn into well-greased individual baking dishes until they are

about two-thirds full, place in a shallow pan of hot water, and bake

until firm when touched with the finger. Serve at once in the dishes in

which they are baked, because they shrink when they are allowed to cool.

72. The tomato sauce that is often served with egg souffle is made as

follows:

TOMATO SAUCE

1 1/2 c. strained stewed tomatoes

2 Tb. fat

1/2 tsp. salt

1/8 tsp. pepper

2 Tb. flour

Force enough stewed tomatoes through a sieve to make 1 1/2 cupfuls of

strained tomato. Heat the strained tomato and to it add the fat, salt,

and pepper. Moisten the flour with a little cold water and add it to the

hot tomato. Cook for 5 minutes. Serve over the souffle.

73. Alpine Eggs.--It is rather unusual to combine cream or cottage

cheese with eggs, so that when this is done, as in the accompanying

recipe, a dish that is out of the ordinary is the result. If not a

sufficient amount of cottage cheese is in supply to serve for a meal, it

may very well be used for this dish. Otherwise, cream cheese serves

nicely.

ALPINE EGGS

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 10-cent pkgs. cream cheese or

1 c. cottage cheese

2 Tb. finely chopped parsley

1/8 tsp. paprika

6 eggs

1 Tb. butter

1 1/2 tsp. salt

Grease six individual baking dishes. Break up the cheese with a fork and

sprinkle a layer on the bottom of each dish. Break an egg in each dish

over the cheese. Season with salt. Sprinkle a layer of cheese on top of

the egg, and over that put chopped parsley, paprika, and a small piece

of butter. Place the baking dishes in a shallow pan of hot water and

bake in a moderate oven until the eggs are set. Remove from the oven and

serve at once.

74. Clipped Eggs.--The chief value of clipped eggs is their appearance,

which,, is very attractive. This dish adds much to the breakfast tray

of an invalid or will tempt the appetite of a child who does not feel

like eating. But in addition to being attractive, this dish is high in

food value, for in this respect it is exactly equivalent to a poached

egg on toast or a plain egg served with a piece of toast to which is

added a small amount of butter.

CLIPPED EGGS

(Sufficient to Serve Six)

6 pieces toast

3 Tb. butter

6 eggs

1/2 tsp. salt

1/8 tsp. pepper

Butter the toast with some of the butter. Separate the whites and yolks

of the eggs without breaking the yolks. Beat the whites stiff, and put a

mound of the beaten white on top of each piece of buttered toast. Make a

hole in the center of the mound of egg white and drop the unbroken yolk

into it. Season each with salt and pepper and bits of the remaining

butter. Place in a hot oven and bake until the yolk is set and the white

slightly browned. Serve hot.

75. LEFT-OVER EGGS.--It is not a difficult matter to utilize eggs in any

form in which they may be left over, for they combine readily with many

other foods. For instance, left-over hard-cooked eggs may be sliced or

chopped and used to garnish dishes of vegetables, meat, fish, or salads.

Eggs cooked in this way may also be stuffed according to the recipe

given in Art. 63, or they may be crushed and mixed with seasoning for

sandwiches. If any soft-cooked eggs remain after a meal, they should be

hard-cooked in order to be used to the best advantage. Left-over omelet

or scrambled, poached, or fried eggs may be chopped and added to soups,

sauces, or gravies, or combined with small pieces of meat or fish and

used with crumbs and white sauce to make a scalloped dish.

Even uncooked eggs that are taken from the shells, but that cannot be

used at once, need not be wasted if proper care is given to them to

prevent the formation of a hard crust over their surface. Such eggs

should be put into a dish that will allow as little of the surface as

possible to be exposed and should be covered with cold water and kept in

a cool place. When they are desired for use, the water should be poured

off carefully so as to prevent the loss of any of the egg.

BREAKFAST MENU

76. So that a definite idea may be formed of the student's progress in

cookery, there is here presented a breakfast menu that is to be prepared

and reported on at the same time that the answers to the Examination

Questions are sent. This menu is practical and it may be easily

prepared, as all the dishes it contains have already been considered.

MENU

Sliced Bananas

Cream of Wheat

Graham Muffins

Butter

Puff Omelet

Coffee

In most homes, breakfast is a meal that is gathered together with as

little thought and preparation as possible. The reason for this is that

the housewife feels that she does not wish to rise early enough in the

morning to prepare an elaborate menu. Breakfast, however, should be the

most attractive meal in the day, because it is one that gives to each

member of the family the right start for the day and sustains him until

luncheon time. In most cases, a cup of coffee and a slice or two of

toast do not start one with a cheerful attitude, nor do they contain

sufficient food value to nourish the individual properly. With a little

forethought and planning, certain foods may be partly prepared for

breakfast the day before. If this is done, the time required for the

actual preparation of the breakfast need not be greatly increased. For

example, in the accompanying menu, the cream of wheat may be cooked the

evening before, the materials for the graham muffins measured, and even

the pan in which they are to be baked greased, and the materials for the

omelet collected and measured. If all this is done, the preparation

necessary in the morning will consist merely of slicing the bananas,

reheating the cream of wheat, preparing the coffee, baking the muffins,

and making the omelet. While the coffee and cream of wheat are heating

or cooking, the oven will be heating, so that when the muffins are mixed

it will be ready to bake them; and while these are baking the omelet may

be prepared. When this is done, all will be ready to serve.

EGGS

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) Give a brief description of the physical structure of an egg.

(2) (a) Why are eggs an important article of diet? (b) For what

foods may they be substituted?

(3) (a) Mention the food substances that are found in an egg, and give

the percentage of each one. (b) What food substance is lacking in

eggs, and how may it be supplied?

(4) What is the chief food substance in: (a) an egg white? (b) an

egg yolk?

(5) Discuss briefly the digestibility of eggs.

(6) (a) Of what value is the grading of eggs? (b) What points are

considered when eggs are graded?

(7) (a) What conditions affect the quality of eggs? (6) Mention the

agencies that render the quality of eggs inferior and explain how

they work.

(8) How can the quality of eggs be determined: (a) in the market?

(b) in the home?

(9) (a) What is the common commercial means of preserving eggs? (b)

How is it beneficial to the housewife?

(10) (a) Mention the various ways by which eggs may be preserved in

the home. (b) Explain the preservation of eggs with water glass.

(11) When may the shells of eggs be washed?

(12) (a) What is the preferable method of breaking an egg? (b)

Explain how the yolk and the white of an egg may be separated.

(13) (a) For what purposes are eggs beaten? (b) With what kind of

egg beater should egg yolks or whole eggs be beaten?

(14) (a) With what kind of utensil should egg whites be beaten? (b)

Why should egg whites not be allowed to stand after beating?

(15) (a) What is the effect of heat upon an egg? (b) Why are eggs

cooked in the shell better if they are cooked at a temperature lower

than boiling point? (c) Cook an egg by boiling it rapidly for 20

minutes. Cook another egg according to the directions given in Art. 52.

Remove the shells while the eggs are warm, compare the texture, and

report the differences.

(16) (a) When eggs are used in a mixture that is to be cooked for a

long time, when should they be added? (b) What can be substituted for

some of the eggs in a mixture that requires eggs for thickening?

(17) (a) What point should never be overlooked in the serving of eggs

that are intended to be served hot? (b) Why should spongy egg dishes

be served immediately after cooking?

(18) (a) How should dishes that have contained eggs be washed? (b)

Why is such care necessary?

(19) (a) What precautions should be taken in the making of a puff

omelet? (b) Mention some of the things that may be used to give

variety to omelets.

(20) (a) What are the advantages of individual baking dishes? (b)

State how these should be put in the oven and explain the object of

this plan.

REPORT ON MENU

After trying out the menu given in the text, send with your answers to

the Examination Questions a written report of your success in making it.

On your report simply write the name of the food and describe its

condition by means of the terms specified in the following list:

Cream of Wheat: thin? thick? properly seasoned? smooth? lumpy?

Graham Muffins: light? heavy? texture coarse? texture fine? even brown

color on crust? well flavored?

Puff Omelet: light? heavy? underdone? overdone? even brown on bottom?

tough? tender? properly seasoned?

* * * * *

VEGETABLES (PART 1)

* * * * *

IMPORTANCE OF VEGETABLES AS FOOD

VARIETY IN VEGETABLES

1. As understood in cookery, VEGETABLES refer to plants or parts of

plants that are used as food. Vegetables may consist of the entire

plant, as, for example, the beet; the stem, as asparagus and celery; the

root, as carrot and turnip; the underground stem, or tuber, as the white

potato and onion; the foliage, as cabbage and spinach; the flower of the

plant, as cauliflower; the pods, which hold the seeds of the plant or

the seeds themselves, as peas and beans; or that which in reality is

fruit, although for table use always considered a vegetable, as the

tomato and eggplant.

2. Because of this large assortment, vegetables afford the greatest

possible variety in flavor, appearance, texture, quality, and food

value. They therefore assume a place of very great importance in the

diet of individuals and in the plans of the housewife who has all the

meals to prepare for her family. In fact, there is scarcely a meal,

except breakfast, at which vegetables are not served. For dinner, they

form a part or all of each course in the meal, except, perhaps, the

dessert, and occasionally they may be used for this.

Although two or more vegetables are nearly always served in even a

simple meal, the use of vegetables in most households is limited to

those few varieties which are especially preferred by the family. As a

rule, there are a number of other vegetables that would be very

acceptable if prepared in certain appetizing ways. An effort should

therefore be made to include all such vegetables in the dietary, for

they may be used to decided advantage and at the same time they afford

variety in the meals. The constant demand for variety in this food makes

acceptable new recipes for the preparation of the vegetables already

known and information for the use of the unfamiliar kinds.

3. Great variety also exists in the flavor of vegetables, which they

derive from their volatile oils; that is, the oils that evaporate

rapidly on exposure to the air. In some cases, the flavor is

disagreeably strong and must be dissipated, or driven away, in order to

make the vegetables agreeable to the taste and to prevent them from

disagreeing with those who eat them. In others, the flavor is very mild,

so that unless the vegetables are properly prepared the flavor may be

almost lost. When the principles relating to the cooking of vegetables

are thoroughly understood, little difficulty will be experienced in

preparing them so that the flavor is dissipated or retained as the case

may require.

4. The food value of vegetables varies as much as do their form and

flavor, some of them having almost no food value, others having a great

deal, and the remainder varying between these two extremes. The

housewife who wishes to provide economically for her family and at the

same time give them food that is best suited to their needs, should

learn as much of the composition and food value of the various kinds of

vegetables as possible. If, besides acquiring this knowledge, she learns

a variety of ways in which to prepare each kind, she will find that it

is possible to substitute vegetable dishes for the more expensive foods.

For instance, it is often possible to substitute a vegetable dish for a

meat dish several times a week, but the composition of the vegetable

dish must be such that it will really take the place of the meat dish.

5. That it is possible for adults to live on vegetables alone has been

proved by vegetarians; that is, persons who exclude meat from the diet.

They have shown that all the elements necessary to build and maintain

the human body are contained in vegetables, fruits, and cereals, and

also that these elements are in such quantity that it is not necessary

to supply them in any other way. Even if it is not desired to use such

foods exclusively, as much use should be made of them as possible, for

they average a lower cost than the high-protein foods, such as eggs,

meat, and milk. The use of vegetables, however, need not be restricted

to adults, for when properly prepared they may be included to advantage

in the diet of very young children. In fact, children should be trained

to eat vegetables of all kinds, for such training not only will enable

each one to grow up with a correct appreciation for all edible things,

but will make the preparation of meals easier for the housewife.

6. Vegetables should receive great care in their preparation, whether

the method involved is simple or complicated. Any of the methods of

cookery that call for the application of heat may be applied to them,

and in many cases they are served without cooking, merely dressing or

seasoning being added. Good vegetables may be ruined by improper

preparation, while those which are in excellent condition may be

improved by the application of the correct methods in their preparation.

Vegetables that are inexpensive but highly nutritious should be used

when it is necessary to practice economy, because, when they are

properly prepared, they form a valuable addition to a meal.

7. All varieties of vegetables are grown almost universally. This fact,

together with the facts that they mature at different times during the

season, according to the climate in which they are grown, and that most

varieties can be conveniently shipped, makes the season in which certain

fresh vegetables can be obtained much longer than it formerly was. For

instance, very early in the season, long before it is possible to have

beans, peas, and other vegetables in the North, they are shipped from

the extreme South, and as the season advances, they mature farther and

farther north. Therefore, they may be constantly supplied to the

northern markets until the time when they mature in that locality.

8. In order not to waste vegetables and to have them in the best

possible condition when they are desired for preparation, every

housewife should realize that the selection and care of vegetables are

also important matters to consider. The selection must be learned by

familiarity with them, as well as practice in buying, and the housewife

must be guided by the suitability of the vegetables and the money she

has to spend for them. The care that must be given to them is determined

by the kinds that are purchased, some requiring one kind of care in

storage and others entirely different attention.

STRUCTURE, COMPOSITION, AND FOOD VALUE

9. STRUCTURE OF VEGETABLES.--Although vegetables vary greatly in

composition and consequently in food value, they are similar so far as

physical structure is concerned. In general, they consist of a skeleton

framework that is made up of cellulose. Their digestible part is

composed of tiny cells having thin walls that confine the actual food

material in the form of a liquid or semiliquid. As the vegetables grow

old, the cellulose material and the cell walls gradually toughen, with

the result that old vegetables are less easily made tender than young

ones and are not so agreeable to the taste as those which have not grown

hard. The total food value of vegetables, as well as of cereals, meats,

and, in fact, all foods, varies with the quantity of water and cellulose

they contain. Therefore, the vegetables that contain the least coarse

material are the ones that have the highest food value.

10. The green color that characterizes many vegetables is due to a

substance called chlorophyl. This substance is essential to the normal

growth of plants and is present in the correct amount in only those

which are properly exposed to the sunlight. Sufficient proof of this is

seen in the case of vegetables that form heads, as, for instance,

cabbage and head lettuce. As is well known, the outside leaves are

green, while the inside ones are practically white. Since it is exposure

to the light that produces the green color, a vegetable or plant of any

kind can be bleached by merely covering it in order to keep out the

sunlight. This procedure also enables the plants to remain more tender

than those which have been allowed to grow in the normal way and become

green. For instance, the inside leaves of a head of lettuce are always

very much more tender than the green outside leaves. In fact, the center

of any kind of plant, that is, the leaves and the stem that appear last,

are more tender, possess a lighter color, and have a more delicate

flavor than the older ones.

11. PROTEIN IN VEGETABLES.--Taken as a whole, vegetables are not high in

protein. Some of them contain practically none of this food substance

and others contain a comparatively large amount, but the average is

rather low. Vegetables that are high in water, such as lettuce, celery,

tomatoes, and cucumbers, contain so little protein that the quantity is

not appreciable. Such vegetables as potatoes, beets, carrots, etc.

contain slightly larger quantities. Dried vegetables, such as beans,

peas, and lentils, contain comparatively large amounts of this

substance, and for this reason may be substituted for such high-protein

foods as meat and fish.

12. The composition of vegetable protein is only slightly different from

that of animal protein. In fact, the experiments of scientists show that

animal protein may be readily replaced by vegetable protein. One of

these proteins is sometimes called vegetable albumin, but the chief

protein of vegetables containing the largest amount of this substance,

namely, beans, peas, and lentils, is called legumin, from the term

legumes, the name of this class of vegetables. It is generally agreed

that vegetable protein is not so digestible as animal protein, but this

disadvantage is offset by the fact that it does not bring about so much

intestinal trouble as does the protein of animal foods and is less

likely to cause disturbances that are usually attributed to foods high

in this substance. Vegetable protein is affected by heat in much the

same way as other protein.

When any of the dry vegetables high in protein are served at a meal,

meat should be eliminated, or the result will be an oversupply of

protein. As this condition is not only harmful but wasteful, it is one

that should receive proper consideration from the housewife.

13. FAT IN VEGETABLES.--As vegetables as a class are low in protein, so

are they low in fat. In the case of some vegetables, the quantity of fat

they contain is so small that it is never considered in discussing the

food value of these vegetables, while in others slightly larger

quantities are to be found. However, on the whole, vegetables are so

nearly lacking in this food substance that it is necessary to supply fat

in their preparation and in the serving of meals in which they are

included. This is done in a variety of ways, depending on the nature of

the vegetable. For instance, in order that baked beans may take the

place of meat entirely, fat in the form of salt pork is usually added

when they are prepared. The pork, of course, also supplies a very small

amount of protein, but it is not used with the beans for this purpose.

Practically all cooked vegetables are served with butter or with a sauce

that contains fat. Green vegetables that require no cooking but are

served as a salad, are supplied with fat by the salad dressing that is

used with them. The fat varies greatly, depending on the kind of

dressing used.

14. CARBOHYDRATES IN VEGETABLES.--When the composition of vegetables is

considered chemically, the most striking thing about them is the

carbohydrates they contain. It is this that distinguishes this class of

foods from animal foods. The carbohydrate of vegetables is found in

both its forms, starch and sugar. It is in the form of sugar in many of

the vegetables when they are young or immature, but it turns into

starch as they mature. This change can be easily observed in the

case of peas. As is well known, young green peas are rather sweet

because of the sugar they contain, while mature or dried peas have lost

their sweetness and are starchy. The sugar that is found in large

quantities in such vegetables as peas, carrots, turnips, etc. is largely

cane sugar. The starch that vegetables contain occurs in tiny granules,

just as it is found in cereals, and is affected by cooking in the same

way. The mature vegetables in which the starch has developed, although

less tender and less sweet than young ones, have a higher food value. In

fact, the carbohydrate that vegetables contain constitutes a large

proportion of their food value.

One of the chief sources of starch among vegetables is the potato, in

which the starch grains are large and, if properly cooked, easily

digested. Irish, or white, potatoes contain very little carbohydrate in

the form of sugar, but in the sweet potato much of the carbohydrate is

sugar. In either of these two forms--starch and sugar--vegetable

carbohydrate is easily digested.

15. MINERAL MATTER, OR ASH, IN VEGETABLES.--The mineral matter in

vegetables is found in comparatively large quantities, the average

amount being slightly over 1 per cent. The presence of this substance is

of great value, because the mineral salts of both fruits and vegetables

are essential in the diet of adults in order to keep their health in a

normal condition. The mineral salts of vegetables render the blood more

alkaline instead of more acid, as do those contained in cereals and

meat. A large number of vegetables, particularly those low in food

value, such as greens, celery, etc., are very valuable for their mineral

salts. In reality, this substance and the cellulose they contain are the

things that recommend the use of these vegetables in the diet. Minerals

of all kinds are found in solution in the water contained in vegetables,

but chief among them are calcium, sodium, iron, phosphorus, and sulphur.

Greens and salad vegetables are particularly high in iron, the element

that assists in keeping the blood in good condition. These minerals are

easily lost if the method of cookery is not planned to retain them.

16. CELLULOSE IN VEGETABLES.--The special use of cellulose, as has

already been learned, is to serve as bulk in the food containing it. In

vegetables, the cellulose varies greatly as to quantity, as well as to

texture and the amount that can be digested. In young vegetables, it is

very soft and perhaps digestible to a certain extent, but as they grow

older it hardens and they become tough. This fact is clearly

demonstrated in the case of beets. Those which are pulled from the

garden in the summer and cooked are tender and soft, but those which are

allowed to mature in the ground and are then put away for winter are,

when cooked in the late winter or early spring, so hard and tough that

it is almost impossible to make them soft. The quantity of cellulose

that vegetables contain therefore depends largely on their age and

condition. Those low in total food value contain, as a rule, larger

quantities of it than those high in food value. This is due to the fact

that both water and cellulose, which are usually found together in large

quantities, help to detract from the fuel, or food, value of foods.

Very young persons or those who are ill sometimes find it impossible to

take in its original form a vegetable that contains a large amount of

bulk, or cellulose. In such a case, the vegetable may be put through a

colander or a sieve in order to break up the cellulose and make it

easier to digest. Under ordinary conditions, cellulose should not be

avoided, but should be included in large quantities in the diet through

the vegetables that are consumed daily.

17. WATER IN VEGETABLES.--The majority of vegetables contain a large

quantity of water. Such vegetables as lettuce, cucumbers, tomatoes,

etc., which are low in total food value, contain the most water, the

average percentage being about 95. The dry vegetables, which are high in

food value, average only about 10 per cent. of water. The water that is

found in vegetables, whether it is much or little, is contained in

cell-like structures surrounded by cellulose, and it holds in solution

the mineral salts and much of the nutriment of the vegetables. In

addition, the water holds in solution to a certain extent the material

that gives vegetables their distinctive flavor. When any of this water

is lost in the preparation of vegetables, the substances that it

contains are also lost. It is therefore essential that correct methods

of preparation be chosen for the cooking of this food, so as to prevent

the waste of valuable food materials.

18. DIGESTIBILITY OF VEGETABLES.--The digestibility of vegetables is

largely an individual matter; that is, a vegetable that agrees with one

person may not agree with another. The fact that there appears to be no

apparent reason for such a condition would lead to the conclusion that

it is due to the peculiarities of the person. Because of this, it is not

fair to make the general statement that a particular vegetable is easy

to digest and another one is hard to digest.

The chief cause for difficulty in the digestion of vegetables lies in

their volatile oils, which give them their flavor, but which are

irritating to many persons. Vegetables having a strong flavor, such as

radishes, onions, cucumbers, cabbage, and cauliflower, are the ones that

disagree most frequently with persons who eat them; but sometimes the

way in which some of them are cooked has more to do with this than the

vegetables themselves.

Vegetables containing considerable cellulose and water do not of

themselves give trouble in digestion, because they contain practically

nothing to digest; but they are sometimes responsible for interfering

with the digestion of other foods. Vegetables that are extremely high in

starch, such as potatoes, are easily digested by most persons, provided

they are properly cooked. For instance, a plain baked potato is easily

digested, but the same potato sauted in fat is more difficult of

digestion.

19. TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF VEGETABLES.--As

vegetables vary considerably in the amount of the food substances they

contain, so do they differ greatly in their food value. This is clearly

shown in Table I, which gives the percentage of the food substances of

vegetables, as well as the food value per pound, in calories, that these

vegetables contain. The figures in this table are taken from Atwater's

Table of American Food Materials, and refer to the edible portion of the

material. In the case of several vegetables, no figures are given by

this authority, but in the table here presented the percentages and the

calories for the vegetables most similar are used. For example, the

figures for lettuce are used for endive, as the composition and food

value of this vegetable are not included and it resembles lettuce very

closely. Constant reference should be made to Table I as progress is

make with the study of vegetables and their preparation. Noting the

difference in the composition of the different vegetables, as well as

the variation in their food value, will be not only interesting but

instructive. For instance, when the housewife realizes that lettuce and

celery furnish only 85 to 90 calories to the pound, while dried beans

and peas average more than 1,700 calories to the pound, she will

understand better the place that these foods occupy in the dietary.

TABLE I

COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF VEGETABLES

Food Value

Vegetable Water Protein Fat Carbo- Ash per Pound

hydrate Calories

----------------------------------------------------------------

Asparagus .......... 94.0 1.8 .2 3.3 .7 105

Beans

Dried ............ 12.6 22.5 1.8 59.6 3.5 1,750

Lima ............. 68.5 7.1 .7 22.0 1.7 570

Shelled .......... 58.9 9.4 .6 29.1 2.0 740

String ........... 89.2 2.3 .3 7.4 .8 195

Beets .............. 87.5 1.6 .1 9.7 1.1 215

Brussels sprouts ... 88.2 4.7 1.1 4.3 1.7 215

Cabbage ............ 91.5 1.6 .3 5.6 1.0 145

Carrots ............ 88.2 1.1 .4 9.3 1.0 210

Cauliflower ........ 92.3 1.8 .5 4.7 .7 140

Celery ............. 94.5 1.1 .1 3.3 1.0 85

Corn ............... 75.4 3.1 1.1 19.7 .7 470

Cucumbers .......... 95.4 .8 .2 3.1 .5 80

Eggplant ........... 92.9 1.2 .3 5.1 .5 130

French artichokes .. 92.5 .8 .2 5.0 1.5 110

Greens

Dandelion ........ 81.4 2.4 1.0 10.6 4.6 285

Endive ........... 94.7 1.2 .3 2.9 .9 90

Spinach .......... 92.3 2.1 .3 3.2 2.1 110

Swiss chard ...... 92.3 2.1 .3 3.2 2.1 110

Lettuce .......... 94.7 1.2 .3 2.9 .9 90

Watercress ....... 94.7 1.2 .3 2.9 .9 90

Jerusalem artichokes 79.5 2.6 2.0 16.7 1.0 365

Kohlrabi ........... 91.1 2.0 .1 5.5 1.3 145

Lentils, dried ..... 8.4 25.7 1.0 59.2 5.7 1,620

Mushrooms .......... 88.1 3.5 .4 6.8 1.2 210

Okra ............... 90.2 1.6 .2 7.4 .6 175

Onions ............. 87.6 1.6 .3 9.9 .6 225

Parsnips ........... 83.0 1.6 .5 13.5 1.4 300

Peas

Dried ............ 9.5 24.6 1.0 62.0 2.9 1,655

Green ............ 74.6 7.0 .5 16.9 1.0 465

Peppers ............ 92.9 1.2 .3 5.1 .5 130

Potatoes

Irish ............ 78.3 2.2 .1 18.4 1.0 385

Sweet ............ 69.0 1.8 .7 27.4 1.1 570

Radishes ........... 91.8 1.3 .1 5.8 1.0 135

Salsify ............ 88.2 1.1 .4 9.3 1.0 210

Squash

Summer ........... 95.4 .8 .2 3.1 .5 80

Winter ........... 88.3 1.4 .5 9.0 .8 215

Tomatoes ........... 94.3 .9 .4 3.9 .5 105

Turnips ............ 89.6 1.3 .2 8.1 .8 185

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* * * * *